Class, QV 7^3 
Book >W-ll 




TO WHICH IS NOW ADDED 

RACING, HUNTING & SHOOTING 
artii Thr whole carrfnlh) rttnaei 

se vrsrrH Euincar. 




"WTItf SIXTT-rOUB. E2TGBJV.VXNGS. 



^nf S, OEH C? AiyrP. IT C OZR3TEJR , 

ZP.A- T 13 H.15TO STEB .B.O W, 



WALKER'S 

MANLY EXERCISES; 

CONTAINING 

ROWING, SAILING, RIDING, DRIVING, 

AND OTHER MANLY SPORTS. 

TO WHICH ARE NOW ADDED, FOR THE FIRST TIME, 

faring, i^untmg, artti S$oottng, 

AND THE WHOLE CAREFULLY REVISED, 

BY " CRAVEN." 



SEVENTH EDITION. 



LONDON: 

Wm, S. ORR AND CO., AMEN CORNER, 
PATERNOSTER ROW. 

MDCCCXLTII. 



London : 

bradbury and evans, printers. 

WHITEFRIARS. 



/VITHDRAV; N 

MAY 9 tm 



PUB 3 LIl^ARY 
"W ASHLN GTGftT, - D. C. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. 



The publishers of the Sixth Edition of this popular little volume 
had a double purpose in entering upon the undertaking, — 
namely, to offer a carefully-revised copy of Walker's Manly 
Exercises, and an outline of Rural Sports, to which they 
serve as the best elementary introduction. As the execution of 
that design was committed to me, I can only allude to the nature 
of the task, and hope that I have not quite failed in the enter- 
prise. This I may be permitted to say, — that if the publishers' 



desire to make the work a source of instructive and rational 
amusement be realized, even to the tithe of its extent and 
earnestness, the labour of his Editor will not have been wholly 
without success. 



CRAVEN. 



November ], 1839. 



\ 



CONTENTS. 



IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 

General Directions .... .6 

Training . . . .... 8 

Position ...... .18 

Extension Motions . . . ■ 20 

The Indian Club Exercises . 22 

LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES. 

The Balance Step . . , 28 

Walking ....... 29 

General Mechanism of Walking . . . . . 31 

The Slow Walk or March .... .32 

The Moderate and the Quick Pace . • . . . 32 

The Moderate Pace ..... .33 

The Quick Pace . . . . , . . 33 

Slow Step . . . . . . . 35 

Quick Step . . . . . . . 35 

Double March ..... .35 

Feats in Walking . . . . . . 36 

Running ...... 37 

Position in Running ..... 38 

Action in Running .... 35 

Respiration ..... 39 

Moderate Running ..... .39 

Rapid Running . . . . . . . 40 

Feats in Running ..... .41 

Effects of Running . . . . . . 41 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



Pa g k 

Leaping ...... .42 

The High Leap . * . . •. . . 42 

Feats in High Leaping 1 .... .44 

The Long Leap . . . . . . . 44 

Feats in Long Leaping .... . 45 

The Deep Leap . . . . . . . 46 

The Deep Leap backwards from a rest on the hands . . 46 

Vaulting . ... 48 

Oblique Vaulting . ... 48 

Straight-forward Vaulting . . . . . . 49 

Leaping with a Pole ..... .50 

The High Leap with a Pole . . . 50 

The Long Leap with a Pole .... .54 

The Deep Leap with a Pole . . . 55 

Balancing . ..... .56 

Position and Action in Balancing .* . . 57 

Turns in Balancing ..... .57 

Carrying Weight . . . GO 

Throwing the Discus .... .62 

Climbing, in all its divisions . . . 64 

Skating ... ... 69 

Construction of the Skate . . . 69 

. Dress of the Skater .... 72„ 

Preliminary and General Directions . . . . 72 

The Ordinary Run, or Inside Edge Forward . . .73 

The Forward Roll, or Outside Edge . . . . 75 

Figure of Three, or Inside Edge Backward . . . 76 

Outside Edge Backward . . . . 77 

The Back Roll ..... .78 

Dangers of Skating . . . . SO 

Treatment of Drowned Persons ... . 80 

AQUATIC EXERCISES. 

Swimming . . . . . . . 82 

Preparatory Instructions .... .83 

Place and time for Swimming . . . . . 85 

Dress ...... .86 

Aids . . " .;- . * ... 86 

Cramp ...... .87 

Entering the Water . . . . . . 88 

Buoyancy in the Water .... .88 

Attitude and Action in the Water . . . . . 91 

Respiration in Swimming .... .91 



CONTENTS. Til 

PAG K 

Coming out of the Water . . . .92 

Upright Swimming . . . 92 

Treading Water . . . . 95 - 

Back Swimming . . . 95 

Floating . . . . .96 

Side Swimming . . . 97 

Plunging . ... 97 

Diving . o , , . 98 

Thrusting . 99 

Springing . . . 99 

One-arm Swimming . . . .100 

Feats in Swimming . . . . 100 

Rowing, in all its kinds . , . .101 

Sailing, with notices cf the Yacht Clubs, and General Directions . 103 

RIDING. 

The Horse and Equipments . . .122 

Mounting and Dismounting . . . 123 

The Seat . . . . .129 

The Balance . . . 131 

The Rein Hold . . . .132 

The Correspondence . . . . . 134 

The Action . . . .135 

The Hand . . . 136 

The Aids . . . . .138 

Animations, Soothings, and Corrections . 142 

The Walk . . . . .144 

The Trot . . . 147 

Road Riding . . . . .150 

The Gallop . . . . . 152 

Leaping . . . . .156 

Critical Situations . . . . . 159 

Treatment of the Horse . . . .165 

Driving . . . 170 

The Road . . . . .175 

Carriages . . . - . . 176 

Coach Horses . . . . .173 

Harness . , . 185 
Relative Prices of Horses .... 189 

Coachmen . . , 193 

Mounting and Dismounting . . .198 

The Seat . . . . 199 

Starting . . . . .199 

The Paces . . . 200 



viii 



CONTENTS. 



FA G K 

The Time . . . . .201 

The Whip . . . 202 

Thoroughfares, Passing, &c. . . . 207 

Ascending and Descending Hills . . . 208 

The Turnings . . . . .213 

The Ranks in Town . . 214 

Stops . . . . .215 

Accidents to Horses . . . 215 
Accidents to Coaches .... 217 

Obstructions, Offences, and Injuries . 221 

APPENDIX. 

Racing . . . . .223 

Hunting . . . . 239 

Shooting . 253 



J 



IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 



Education may be divided into two parts, physical and 
mental. Of the former, Exercises or Gymnastics are the 
most extensive and the earliest portion. 

Their extent is learnt by an enumeration of them, viz., 
Walking, Running.. Leaping, Vaulting, Pole-leaping, Balancing, 
Skating, Carrying, Climbing, and Swimming. We have added 
Throwing the Discus; and, in a course of British Exercises, 
we think Rowing, Sailing, Riding, and Driving, would be very 
improperly omitted. 

The object of these Exercises is to strengthen the muscular 
system, by subjecting it to a regular process of training, and to 
teach the means of employing it most advantageously. The 
expediency of their early acquisition is rendered evident by the 

8 



2 IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 

first tendency of youth being directed to them, by the rapid 
progress made in them, and by the delight derived from them, 
at a period when the body is incapable, with, real or solid ad- 
vantage, of higher acquirements. 

Their general utility will be questioned only by those who 
are not aware that the health and vigour of all the bodily organs 
depend on the proportioned exercise of each. In active exer- 
tion, the member exercised swells with the more frequent and 
more copious flow of blood, and heat is developed in it with 
greater abundance; and if we repeat the same motions many 
times after intervals of repose, all the muscles exercised become 
permanently developed; a perfection of action ensues in the 
member exercised, which it did not previously possess, any de- 
formity by which it is affected is corrected, and strength and 
activity are. acquired. That man, therefore, gains the most 
strength who engages in muscular exercises that require the 
application of much power, but which are sufficiently separated 
by intervals of repose. 

It must be remembered, however, that, in exercising parti- 
cular muscles only, the others become weak. The strength of 
Marshal Saxe was sufficiently great to stop a chariot drawn at 
speed by four horses, by merely seizing the wheel: he bent 
pieces of silver with his fingers, made them into boats as he 
would with paper, and presented them to the ladies. Count 
Orloff, a Russian general, broke the shoe of a carriage horse in 
the same manner ; and there are innumerable examples of 
similar feats of extraordinary strength. 

Active exercises, at the same time, confer beauty of form; 
and they even contribute to impart an elegant air and graceful 
manners. If the exercise of a limb be continued for some time, 
the member swells, a painful sensation is experienced, which is 
termed lassitude, and a difficulty of contraction, which is the 
result of it. If the motion has been excessive, and the organic 
elements in the member have been acted upon beyond ail phy- 
siological laws, inflammation would take place, and its functions 
be performed with great difficulty, if at all. 



IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 



Such are the effects of exercise on the locomotive system, to 
all the functions of animated beings, so long as they are exer- 
cised with moderation, equality, and at due intervals, working 
for their own preservation. Of course, the general effect of 
active exercises is marked in proportion to the number of parts 
that share in the motion, or are brought into energetic action. 
In general exercise, the increase of organic action is not con- 
fined solely to the parts which are the seat of muscular con- 
traction, but is repeated throughout all parts of the economy, 
and influences all the functions. 

Thus, as to the vital or nutritive system, exercises taken when 
digestion is not going on, excite the digestive faculty : taken 
during its progress, they disorder that function. The arterial 
and venous circulations become more rapid by active exercise, 
which concludes by giving greater force to the , tissue of the 
heart. It is the same with respiration and calorification. The 
same takes place with regard to nutrition, a function which ex- 
ercise increases, not only in the muscles in movement, as we 
have just seen, but also in the bones, ligaments, vessels, and 
nerves. 

By inducing cutaneous exhalation, it promotes the expulsion 
of injurious agents, produces a fresh colour in persons who may 
have become pale through a sedentary life, and, to a certain ex- 
tent, renders the human constitution, by means of habit, proof 
against the action of surrounding objects. The local effects of 
excessive action, or those which take place in the members 
themselves, are, as before observed, inflammation of the muscles, 
rheumatism, like that arising from cold, and inflammation of the 
serous articular membranes. The general effects of excessive 
exercise may, in the same manner as all physical and moral 
stimulants, exhaust the vital faculties too quickly, communicate 
too much rigidity to the fibres, render the vessels varicose, bring 
on chronic rheumatism, destroy the freshness of the skin, blight 
the flower of youth, and produce old age and death before the 
time ordained by nature. 

Ancient writers inform us that it was a rare thing to meet 

B 2 



4 



IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXEF.CISES. 



with athletes, who, having signalized themselves from their 
earliest youth in gymnastic combats, were of so excellent a con- 
stitution as to be able, when they had reached a more advanced 
age, to acquire the same honours on contending for the prize 
with grown men. Aristotle assures us, that amongst the con- 
querors in the Olympic Games, not more than two or three at 
the most could be found to whom nature had granted such an 
advantage. 

In relation to the mental or thinking system, {i every move- 
ment," says Cabanis, " becomes in its turn the principle or 
occasion of new impressions, of which the frequent repetition 
and the varied character must increase more and more the circle 
of our judgments, or tend unceasingly to rectify them. It hence 
follows that labour, giving to this word the most general signi- 
fication, cannot but have an influence infinitely useful on the 
habits of the understanding, and consequently also on those of 
the will/ 5 This argument is evidently applicable to varied ex- 
ercise. On the contrary, "the great division of labour, so favour- 
able to the perfecting of the arts, contracts more and more the 
understanding of workmen." Exercises, moreover, inspire con- 
fidence in difficult situations, and suggest resources in danger. 
Their consequent influence upon the moral conduct of man is 
such, that, by a courage which is well founded, because it springs 
from a perfect knowledge of his own powers, he is often enabled 
to render the most important services to others. 

Although the direct effect of exercise is not only to confer 
power on the muscular and other organs, but to multiply ex- 
ternal impressions, and to occupy with them all the senses at 
once ; still minds thus disposed, in general occupy themselves 
rather with objects of imagination and sentiment, than with 
those which demand more complicated operation. The sense of 
muscular power impresses determinations which, carrying man 
perpetually out of himself, scarcely permit him to dwell upon 
impressions transmitted to his brain. The only action of that 
organ, during these exercises, seems to be limited to ordering 
the movements. 



IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 



5 



Hence, exercise, especially taken in the open air, amidst new 
and varied objects of sight, is not favourable to reflection- — to 
labours which demand the assemblage and concentration of all 
the powers of the mind. It is, on the contrary, in the absence 
of external impressions, that we become more capable of seizing 
many relations, and of following a long train of purely abstract 
reasoning. As life spent chiefly in active muscular exercises 
would leave in a state of repose those central organs that are 
subservient to the moral qualities and intellectual faculties, I 
agree with Seneca and Camper, in proscribing all such exer- 
cises, or such degrees of exercise, as would exhaust the mind, 
and render man incapable of aptitude in science, polite litera- 
ture, and art. 

The cultivation of bodily strength, in preference to every 
thing else, would establish only the right of the strongest, as it 
is found to exist in the origin of society. To cultivate the 
faculties of the mind exclusively, would produce only the weak- 
ness of sentiment or excess of passion. There is, for every indi- 
vidual, a means of making all these dispositions act in harmony; 
and the due blending of physical and moral education alone can 
produce it. Let it be remembered that young persons will 
much more easily be withdrawn from the application they ought 
to pay to the study of the sciences, by insipid recreations and 
trifling games, than by the fatiguing exercises necessary for their 
developement and the preservation of their health, which, how- 
ever, habit soon renders easy and delightful. To what vices 
do not a sedentary life and the practice of gaming give rise ? 
— whilst well-regulated exercises excite ambition to excel, and 
energy in the performance of every duty. 

The philosophers of antiquity, such as Aristotle and Plato, 
regarded gymnastic exercises as of vast importance, and con- 
sidered a state defective and badly organized where these exer- 
cises were not instituted. Colleges, called Gymnasia, were there- 
fore established everywhere, and superintended by distinguished 
masters. Accordingly, the illustrious men of the Grecian and 
Roman republics, even those who shone in literature and the 



6 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 



fine arts, received the same physical education. The gymnastic 
exercises which are here recommended are not intended to pro- 
duce athletes, but to strengthen the human constitution. One 
exercise gives solidity, another address ; and we may even say 
that the various kinds of exercise are sometimes opposed to 
each other. The strongest peasant is far from being the best 
runner ; and the most vigorous dancer would probably be defi- 
cient in strength. There is, however, a mean to be found in 
the disposition of every individual to preserve both skill and 
strength, and this is what ought to be sought. For this pur- 
pose, it will suffice to practise young persons a few hours every 
day, sometimes at one exercise, and sometimes at another, 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

It only remains for us to give a few directions as to the time, 
place, and circumstances of exercise. The best time for the 
elementary exercises is when the air is cool, as, even in summer, 
it is early in the morning, or after the sun has declined; and 
they should never immediately follow a meal. The best place 
for these elementary exercises is a smooth grass-plat, or a firm 
sandy sea-beach. Chasms, stones, and stakes, are always dan- 
gerous. At the commencement, the coat and all unnecessary 
clothes should be laid aside ; and all hard or sharp things should 
be taken from the pockets of the remaining dress. A very light 
covering on the head, as a straw hat, is best ; the shirt-collar 
should be open, the breast being either exposed or thinly 
covered ; the waistband of the trousers should not be tight, and 
the boots or shoes should have no iron about them. 

As sudden transitions are always bad, exercise should begin 
gently, and should terminate in the same manner. The left 
hand and arm being commonly weaker than the right, they 
should be exercised till they become as strong. This custom is 
advantageous, not only for all military and mechanical gymnastic 
exercises, but also for all their operations. The being cooled 
too quickly is injurious. Therefore, drinking when very hot, or 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 



lying down on the cold ground, should be carefully avoided. 
No exertion should be carried to excess, as that only exhausts 
and enfeebles the body. Therefore, whenever the gymnast feels 
tired, or falls behind his usual mark, he should resume his 
clothes, and walk home. The moment exercise is finished, the 
clothes should always be put on, and the usual precautions 
adopted to prevent taking cold. 

The necessary fittings-up of an exercising ground are a leap- 
ing stand, a vaulting horse, a balancing bar, a climbing stand, 
with ladders, poles, and ropes, which may be seen united as 
simplv and economically as possible, in a subsequent sketch — 
(Plate XXV. Climbing.) 

In most exercises, a belt or cincture is of utility; and it seems, 
in all ages, to have been naturally employed. The weakest 
savage, who could not follow others in the course without pant- 
ing, would find, by placing his hand over his abdomen, and 
supporting the liver and other organs which descend into that 
cavity, that he was aided in running, and breathed more easily ; 
and thence he would make for himself a belt. United in socie- 
ties, men would still preserve their belt, though it might not 
seem particularly advantageous, except to those whose active 
mode of "life approached a primitive state, such as travellers, 
couriers, and porters. 

The Greeks put on their belts before they commenced 
wrestling; and many physicians, both ancient and modern, 
recommend the use of belts, as being to the whole of the body, 
and to the parts over which they are placed, what the exterior 
sheaths or aponeuroses are to the muscles — bands which em- 
brace and keep firm the parts over which they are placed. The 
common belt has leathern straps, and buckles to fasten it, an 
iron ring and a pocket. A double cincture for wrestling forms 
a very strong girth, which is put on by pupils who are very 
strong, when they wrestle. These belts may be made of dif- 
ferent sizes, for youths of different ages : of five or six inches 
for tall youths and men, and of eight or ten inches for wrestlers. 
Their length is in proportion to the size of the person who uses 



g 



TRAINING. 



them. These belts are very useful in strengthening the abdominal 
region in running and leaping. Riders, also, should furnish 
themselves with belts before getting on horseback, to prevent 
too violent motion of the viscera of the abdomen, and the dis- 
orders which may result from it. The use. indeed, of belts will 
by degrees prove their utility, and they will probably be worn 
even externally, without reference to physical exercises. They 
deserve this the more, because they give an ah' of hghtness and 
elegance to the shape, and develope the chest. 

The most useful thing in existence is dangerous, if improperly 
applied. In very young persons, the chest and abdomen have 
been compressed by fastening the belt too tight, or making it 
too wide ; and disorders of digestion and respiration have con- 
sequently 'been caused by pushing in the false ribs. This is an 
imprudence that should be avoided. If the belt be too low, it - 
mav press too much on the lower part of the belly ; if too high, 
it may disorder the chest. It must therefore be placed on the 
loins, so as to pass over the navel; and, as said before, it must 
not be too tight. Having given these ideas of the utility of 
belts, and the manner of using them, it remains only to explain 
the triple use of those adopted for exercises : 1st, they fulfil, by 
their size and other circumstances, all the conditions which 
render them useful; 2nd, a pocket serves to inclose the articles 
that may be wanted, according to the class of exercises per- 
forming ; 3rd, an iron ring is intended to suspend, by means of 
hooks, any thing we wish to carry, so as to leave the hands at 
liberty. 



TRAINING. 

This is important in relation to various exercises to be de- 
scribed. The art of training for athletic exercises, or laborious 
exertions, consists in purifying the body and strengthening its 
powers, by certain processes, which are now to be described. 
The advantages of it, however, are not confined to pedestrians, 



TRAINING. 



9 



wrestlers, or pugilists ; they extend to every one : for, were 
training generally introduced, instead of medicine, for the pre- 
vention and cure of diseases, its beneficial consequences would 
assuredly prolong life, and promote its happiness. Every phy- 
siologist knows that all the parts w 7 hich compose the human 
body — solids as well as liquids — are successively absorbed and 
deposited. Hence ensues a perpetual renovation of them, regu- 
lated by the nature of our food and general habits. The health 
of all the parts, and the soundness of their structure, depend 
on this perpetual absorption and renovation. Now, nothing so 
effectually as exercise excites at once absorption and secretion. 
It accordingly promotes all the vital functions without hurrying 
them, renovates all the parts, and preserves them apt and fit 
for their offices. 

• It follows, then, that health, vigour, and activity, chiefly de- 
pend upon exercise and regimen ; or, in other words, upon the 
observance of those rules which constitute the theory of training. 
The effect has accordingly corresponded with the cause assigned 
in this view of the subject, in every instance where it has been 
adopted ; and, although not commonly resorted to as the means 
of restoring invalids to health, there is every reason to believe 
that it w r ould prove effectual in curing many obstinate diseases, 
such as bilious complaints, obesity, gout, and rheumatism. 

The Ancients entertained this opinion. They were, says a 
popular writer on medicine, by no means unacquainted with or 
inattentive to these instruments of medicine, although modern 
practitioners appear to have no idea of removing disease, or re- 
storing health, but by pouring drugs into the stomach. Hero- 
ditus is said to have been the first who applied the exercises 
and regimen of the Gymnasium to the removal of disease, or 
the maintenance of health. Among the Romans, Asclepiades 
carried this so far, that he is said, by Celsus, almost to have 
banished the use of internal remedies from his practice. He was 
the inventor of various modes of exercise and gestation, in Rome. 
In his own person, he afforded an excellent example of the 
wisdom of his rules, and the propriety of his regimen. Pliny 



10 



TRAINING. 



tells us that, in early life, he made a public profession, that he 
would agree to forfeit all pretensions to the name of a physician, 
should he ever suffer from sickness, or die but of old age ; and, 
what is extraordinary, he fulfilled his promise, for he lived up- 
wards of a century, and at last was killed by a fall down stairs. 

As to the locomotive system, modern experience sufficiently 
proves that exercise is the most powerful strengthener of the 
muscles, and of every part on which activity depends. In its 
operation on the vital system, training always appears to benefit 
the state of the lungs. Indeed, one of its most striking effects 
is to improve the wind : that is, to enable a man to draw a larger 
inspiration, and to hold his breath longer. As to the intellectual 
system, Sir J. Sinclair observes, that, by training, the mental 
faculties are also improved; the attention being more ready, 
and the perception more acute, owing probably to the clearness 
of the stomach, and better digestion. 

It must, therefore, be admitted, that the most beneficial con- 
sequences to general health arise from training. The simplicity 
of the rules for it is assuredly a great recommendation to a trial 
of the experiment. The whole process may be resolved into 
the following principles : — 1st, the evacuating, which cleanses 
the stomach and intestines ; 2nd, the sweating, which takes off 
the superfluities of fat and humours ; 3rd, the daily course of 
exercise, which improves the wind and strengthens the muscles ; 
and, lastly, the regimen, which nourishes and invigorates the 
body. To those who are to engage in corporeal exercises be- 
yond their ordinary powers, it is indispensably necessary. Pedes- 
trians, therefore, who are matched either against others or 
against time, and pugilists who engage to fight, must undergo 
the training process before they contend. The issue of the 
contest, if their powers be nearly equal, will, in a great measure, 
depend upon their relative condition, as effected by training, at 
the hour of trial. 

Training was known to the ancients, who paid much atten- 
tion to the means of augmenting corporeal vigour and activity. 
Accordingly, among the Greeks and Romans, certain rules of 



TRAINING. 



11 



exercise and regimen were prescribed to the candidates for 
gymnastic celebrity. We are assured, that, among the Greeks, 
previously to the solemn contests at the public games, the 
strictest temperance, sobriety, and regularity in hying, were in- 
dispensably requisite. The candidates were, at the same time, 
subjected to daily exercise in the Gymnasium, which continued 
during ten months, and which, with the prescribed regimen, 
constituted the preparatory training adopted by the athletae of 
Greece. Among the Romans, the exercises of the palaestra 
degenerated from the rank of a liberal art, and became a pro- 
fession, which was embraced only by the lowest of mankind; 
the exhibitions of the gladiators being bloody and ferocious 
spectacles, which evinced the barbarous taste of the people. 
The combatants, however, were regularly trained by proper 
exercise, and a strict observance of regimen. Pure and salubri- 
ous air was deemed a chief requisite. Accordingly, the principal 
schools of their athletae were established at Capua and Ravenna, 
the most healthy places in Italy ; and previous to entering on 
this regimen, the. men were subjected to the evacuating process, 
by means of emetics, which they preferred to purgatives. 

In the more early stages of training, their diet consisted of 
dried figs, new cheese, and boiled grain. Afterwards animal 
food was introduced as a part of the athletic regimen, and pork 
was preferred to any other. Galen, indeed, asserts, that pork 
contains more real nutriment than flesh of any other kind, 
which is used as food by man. This fact, he adds, is decidedly 
proved by the example of the athletae, who, if they live but for 
one day on any other kind of food, find their vigour manifestly 
impaired the next. The preference given to pork by the ancients, 
however, does not correspond with the practice of modern 
trainers, who entirely reject it; but in the manner of preparing 
the food, they exactly agree — roasting or broiling being by both 
preferred to boiling, and bread unfermented to that prepared by 
leaven. A very small quantity of liquid was allowed to the 
athletae, and this was principally water. They exercised in the 
open air, and became familiarized by habit to every change of 



12 



TRAINING. 



the weather, the vicissitudes of which soon ceased to affect 
them. 

To exercise their patience, and accustom them to bear pain 
without flinching, they were occasionally flogged on the back 
with the branches of a kind of rhododendron, till the blood 
flowed. By diminishing the quantity of the circulating liquid, 
this rough kind of cupping was also considered salutary ! as ob- 
viating the tendency to plethora or redundancy of blood, to 
which they were peculiarly liable — a proof, if true, of the nou- 
rishing qualities of their food. 

When the daily exercises of the athletse were finished, they 
were refreshed by immersion in a tepid bath, where the per- 
spiration and sordes — scurf, pustules, or filthy adhesions — were 
carefully removed from the surface of the body by the use of 
the strygil.* The skin was then diligently rubbed dry, and 
again anointed with oil. If thirsty, they were tpermitted to 
drink a small quantity of warm water. They then took their 
principal repast, after which they used no more exercise that 
day. They occasionally also went into the cold bath in the 
morning. They were permitted to sleep as many hours as they 
chose; and great increase of vigour, as well as of bulk, was 
supposed to be derived from long- continued and sound repose.f 
The sexual intercourse was strictly prohibited. 

The manner of training among the ancients bears some re- 
semblance to that practised by the moderns. Perhaps it is 
because their mode of living and general habits were somewhat 
different from those of the present age, that a difference of 
treatment is now required to produce the same effects. The 
great object of training for running or boxing matches, is to 
increase the muscular strength, and to improve the free action 
of the lungs, or wind, of the person subjected to the process. 
Seeing that the human body is so capable of being altered and 

* For this instrument, rough coarse cloths are adopted, but not with ad- 
vantage. 

t Little sleep is now prescribed ; but its quantity should depend upon cir- 
cumstances of fatigue, &c. 



TRAINING. 



13 



renovated, it is not surprising that the art of training should be 
carried to a degree of perfection almost incredible ; and that, by 
certain processes, the muscular power, the breath (or wind), and 
the courage of man, should be so greatly improved as to enable 
him to perform the most severe or laborious undertakings. 

That such effects have been produced is unquestionable : they 
are fully exemplified in the astonishing exploits of our most 
celebrated pedestrians and pugilists, which are the infallible re- 
sults of such preparatory discipline. The skilful trainer attends 
to the state of the bowels, the lungs, and the skin ; and he uses 
such means as will reduce the fat, and at the same time invigo- 
rate the muscular fibre. The patient is purged by drastic medi- 
cines ; he is sweated by walking under a load of clothes, and by 
lying between feather beds ; and his limbs are roughly rubbed. 
His diet is beef or mutton : his drink strong ale. He is gradu- 
ally inured to exercise, by repeated trials in walking and running. 
By extenuating the fat, emptying the cellular substance, harden- 
ing the muscular fibre, and improving the breath, a man of the 
ordinary frame may be made to fight for one hour, with the ut- 
most exertion of strength and courage, or to go over one hun- 
dred miles in twenty-four hours. 

The most effectual process for training appears to be that 
practised by Captain Barclay, which has not only been sanctioned 
by professional men, but has met with the unqualified approba- 
tion of amateurs. We are here, therefore, almost entirely in- 
debted to it for details. According to this method, the pedes- 
trian, who may be supposed in tolerable condition, enters upon 
his training with a regular course of physic, which consists of 
three doses. Glauber's salts are generally preferred ; and from 
one ounce and a half to two ounces are taken each time, with 
an interval of four days between each dose. After having gone 
through the course of physic, he commences his regular exer- 
cise, which is gradually increased as he proceeds in the training. 

When the object in view is the accomplishment of a pedes- 
trian match, his regular exercise may be from twenty to twenty- 
four miles a day. He must rise at five in the morning, run half 



14 



TRAINING. 



a mile at the top of his speed up-hill, and then walk six miles 
at a moderate pace, coming in about seven to breakfast, which 
should consist of beef-steaks or mutton-chops under-done, with 
stale bread and old beer. After breakfast, he must again walk 
six miles at a moderate pace, and at twelve lie down in bed, 
without his clothes, for half an hour. On getting up, he must 
walk four miles, and return by four to dinner, which should also 
be beef-steaks or mutton-chops, with bread and beer, as at 
breakfast. Immediately after dinner, he must resume his exer- 
cise, by running half a mile at the top of his speed, and walking 
six miles at a moderate pace. He takes no more exercise for 
that day, but retires to bed about eight ; and next morning he 
proceeds in the same manner. 

Animal diet, it will be observed, is, according to this system, 
alone prescribed, and beef and mutton are preferred. All fat 
and greasy substances are prohibited, as they induce bile, and 
consequently injure the stomach. The lean of meat contains 
more nourishment than the fat ; and, in every case, the most 
substantial food is preferable to any other kind. Fresh meat is 
the most wholesome and nourishing. Salt, spiceries, and all 
kinds of seasonings, with the exception of vinegar, are prohi- 
bited. The lean, then, of fat beef cooked in steaks, with very 
little salt, is the best ; and it should be rather under-done than 
otherwise. Mutton, being reckoned easy of digestion, may be 
occasionally given, to vary the diet and gratify the taste. The 
legs of fowls are also esteemed. 

It is preferable to have the meat broiled, as much of its nutri- 
tive quality is lost by roasting or boiling. It ought to be dressed 
so as to remain tender and juicy ; for it is by these means that 
it will be easily digested, and afford most nourishment. Biscuit 
and stale bread are the only preparations of vegetable matter 
which are permitted to be given; and every thing inducing 
flatulency must be carefully avoided. In general, the quantity 
of aliment is not limited by the trainer, but left entirely to the 
discretion of the pedestrian, whose appetite should regulate him 
in this respect. 



TRAINING, 



With respect to liquors, they must be always taken cold ; and 
i home-brewed beer, old, but not bottled, is the best. A little 
1 red wine, however, may be given to those w T ho are not fond of 
' malt liquor ; but never more than half a pint after dinner. It is 
an established rule to avoid liquids as much as possible ; and no 
more liquor of any kind is allowed to be taken than is requisite 
\ to quench the thirst. 

' After having gone on in this regular course for three or four 
weeks, the pedestrian must take a four-mile sweat, which is pro- 
duced by running four miles in flannel, at the top of his speed. 
Immediately on returning, a hot liquor is prescribed, in order to 
promote the perspiration; and of this he must drink one English 
pint. It is termed the sweating liquor, and is composed of one 
ounce of carraway seed, half an ounce of coriander seed, one 
ounce of root-liquorice, and half an ounce of sugar- candy, mixed 
with two bottles of cyder, and boiled down to one-half. He is 
then put to bed in his flannels, and, being covered with six or 
eight pair of blankets, and a feather bed, must remain in this 
state from twenty-five to thirty minutes, when he is taken out, 
and rubbed perfectly dry. Being then well wrapt in his great 
coat, he walks out gently for two miles, and returns to break- 
fast, which, on such occasions, should consist of a roasted fowl. 
He afterwards proceeds with his usual exercise. 

These sweats are continued weekly, till within a few days of 
the performance of the match; or, in other words, he must 
undergo three or four of these operations. If the stomach of 
the pedestrian be foul, an emetic or two must be given about a 
week before the conclusion of the training. He is now sup- 
posed to be in the highest condition. 

Besides his usual or regular exercise, a person under training 
ought to employ himself, in the intervals, in every kind of exer- 
tion which tends to activity, such as golf, cricket, bowls, throw- 
ing quoits, &c, so that, during the whole day, both body and 
mind may be constantly occupied. Although the chief parts of 
the system depend upon sweating, exercise, and feeding, yet the 
object to be obtained by the pedestrian would be defeated, if 



16 



TRAINING. 



these were not adjusted each to the other, and to his constitu- 
tion. The trainer, before he proceeds to apply his theory, should 
make himself acquainted with the constitution and habits of his 
patient, that he maybe able to judge how far he can, with safety, 
carry on the different parts of the process. The nature of the 
patient's disposition should also be known, that every cause of 
irritation may be avoided ; for, as it requires great patience and 
perseverance to undergo training, every expedient to sooth and 
encourage the mind should be adopted. 

The skilful trainer will, moreover, constantly study the pro- 
gress of his art, by observing the effect of its processes, sepa- 
rately and in combination. If a man retain his health and spirits 
during the process, improve in wind, and increase in strength, 
it is certain that the object aimed at will be obtained; but, if 
otherwise, it is to be apprehended that some defect exists, 
through the unskilfumess or mismanagement of the trainer, 
which ought instantly to be remedied by such alterations as the 
circumstances of the case may demand. It is evident, there- 
fore, that in many instances the trainer must be guided by his 
judgment, and that no fixed rules of management can, with 
absolute certainty, be depended upon, for producing an invari- 
able and determinate result. In general, however, it may be 
calculated, that the known rules are adequate to the purpose, if 
the pedestrian strictly adhere to them, and the trainer bestow a 
moderate degree of attention to his state and condition during 
the progress of training. 

It is impossible to tlx any precise period for the completion 
of the training process, as it depends upon the previous condi- 
tion of the pedestrian : but from two to three months, in most 
cases, will be sufficient, especially if he be in tolerable condition 
at the commencement, and possessed of sufficient perseverance 
and courage to submit cheerfully to the privations and hardships 
to which he must unavoidably be subjected. The criterion by 
which it may be known whether a man is in good condition — or, 
what is the same thing, whether he has been properly trained — 
is the state of the skin, which becomes smooth, elastic, and well- 



TRAINING. 



17 



coloured, or transparent. The flesh is also firm; and the person 
trained feels himself light, and full of spirits. In the progress 
of the training, his condition may also be ascertained by the 
effect of the sweats, which cease to reduce his weight; and by 
the manner in which he performs one mile at the top of his 
speed. It is as difficult to run a mile at the top of one's speed 
as to walk a hundred; and therefore, if he performs this short 
distance well, it may be concluded that his condition is perfect, 
or that he has derived all the advantages which can possibly re- 
sult from the training process. 

A few words may be here added on the comparative strength 
of different races of men. In order to procure some exact re- 
sults on this point, Peron took with him on his voyage an in- 
strument called a dynamometer, so constructed as to indicate 
on a dial-plate the relative force of individuals submitted to ex- 
periment. He directed his attention to the strength of the arms 
and of the loins, making trial with several individuals of each of 
the races among whom he then was, viz., twelve natives of Van 
Diemen's Land, seventeen of New Holland, fifty-six of the Island 
of Timor, seventeen Frenchmen belonging to the expedition, and 
fourteen Englishmen in the colony of New South Wales. The 
following numbers express the mean result in each case, but all 
the details are given in a tabular form in the original : — 

Strength of the Arms. Strength of the Loius. 
Kilogrammes. Myriagrainmes. 

1. Van Diemen's Land . . . 50.6 

2. New Holland .... 50.8 10.2 

3. Timor 58.7 11.6 

4. French 69.2 15.2 

5. English .71.4 16.3 

The highest numbers in the first and second class were, re- 
spectively, 60 and 62 ; the lowest in the English trials 63, and 
the highest 83, for the strength of the arms. In the power of 
the loius, the highest among the New Hollanders was 13; the 
lowest of the English 12.7, and the highest 21.3. " These re- 
sults," observes Mr. Lawrence, " offer the best answer to de- 
clamations on the degeneracy of civilized man. The attribute 

c 



IS 



POSITION. 



of superior physical strength, so boldly assumed by the eidcgists 
of the savage state, has never been questioned or doubted. 
Although we have been consoled for this supposed inferioritv bv 
an enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from 
civilization.it has always been felt as a somewhat degrading dis- 
advantage. Bodily strength is a concomitant of good health, 
which is produced and supported by a regular supply of whole- 
some and nutritious food, and by active occupation. The in- 
dustrious and well-fed middle classes of a civilized community 
may, therefore, be reasonably expected to surpass, in this en- 
dowment, the miserable savages, who are never well-fed, and 
too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other priva- 
tions. 



POSITION. 

Before entering into a detail of exercises, it is necessary to 
attend to what is termed position. — A standing position is the 
action by which we keep ourselves up. Indeed, this state, in 
which the body appears in repose, is itself an exercise, for it 
consists in a continued effort of many muscles : and the expla- 
nation we shall give of it will much facilitate that of walking. 

Every one has observed that during sleep, or a fainting fit, 
the head inclines forward and falls upon the breast. In this 
case, it is in accordance with the laws of gravity; for the 
head, resting upon the vertebrae which support it at a point 
of its basis which is nearer the posterior than anterior part, 
cannot remain in an upright position in standing, except by 
an effort of the muscles at the back of the neck : it is the 
cessation of this effort that causes it to fall forward. The 
body also is unable to remain straight without fatigue. The 
vertebral column being placed behind, all the viscera or parts 
contained by the chest and belly are suspended in front of 
it, and would force it to bend forward unless strong muscular 
fibres held it back. A proof of this may be seen in pregnant 



POSITION. 



19 



and dropsical women, who are compelled, in consequence of the 
anterior part of the body being heavier than usual, to keep 
the vertebral column more fixed, and even thrown backward. 
The same observation may be made with regard to the pelvis, 
basin, or lowest part of the trunk, which by its conformation 
would bend upon the thighs, if not kept back by the great 
mass of muscular fibres that form the hips. In front of the 
thighs, again, are the muscles which, by keeping the kneepan 
in position, are the means of preventing the leg from bending. 
Lastly, the muscles forming the calves, by contracting, are the 
means of preventing the leg from bending upon the foot. 

Such is the general mechanism of the standing position. It 
is, therefore, as we observed, a concurrence of efforts : almost 
all the extending muscles are in a state of contraction all the 
time that this position is maintained, and the consequence is, 
a fatigue which cannot be endured for any great length of time. 
Hence we see persons in a standing position rest the weight of 
their body, first on one foot, then on another, for the purpose 
of procuring momentary ease to certain muscles. For this 
reason, also, standing still is more fatiguing than walking, in 
which the muscles are alternately contracted and extended. 

A question of importance on this subject is, what position of 
the feet affords the greatest solidity in standing ? We will not 
enter into a detail of the numerous controversies by which some 
have defended or repudiated the position with the toes turned 
forward or outward : it will be sufficient to state the fact, that 
the larger the base of support, the firmer and more solid will 
the position be, and to adopt, as a fundamental one, the 
military position, which has been found practically the best by 
those who have nothing else to do but to walk. The equal 
squareness of the shoulders and body to the front, is the first 
great principle of position. The heels must be in a line, and 
closed; the knees straight; the toes turned out, with the 
feet forming an angle of sixty degrees ; the arms hanging 
close to the body ; the elbows turned in, and close to the 
sides; the hands open to the front, with the view of pre- 

c 2 



20 



EXTENSION MOTIONS. 



serving the elbow in the position above described ; the little 
ringers lightly touching the clothing of the limbs, with the 
thumb close to the forefinger ; the belly rather drawn in, and 
the breast advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, 
but inchning forward, so that the weight of it may principally 
bear upon the fore part of the feet ; the head erect, and the eyes 
straight to the front — (as in Plate I. fig. 1.) 

To these brief directions I must add, that, in standing, the 
whole figure should be in such a position that the ear, shoulder, 
haunch, knee, and ankle are all in a line ; that it must be 
stretched as much as possible, by raising the back of the head, 
drawing in the chin, straightening the spine, rising on the hips, 
and extending the legs ; that the object of keeping the back 
thus straight is to allow of standing longer without fatigue : that 
it is important to expand the chest, and to throw the shoulders 
back, with the shoulder-blades, or scapulae, quite flat behind ; 
and that though, in military instructions, the body is thus in- 
clined forward in standing without arms, yet when these are 
assumed, the body is immediately thrown about two inches 
backward, into a nearly perpendicular position. This position, 
therefore, will be modified in walking, and especially in ordinary 
walking; but it is an excellent fundamental position, and it 
cannot be too accurately acquired. 

This is the amount of the drill- sergeant's instructions as to 
position, though this last part is omitted in the Manual describing 
the Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army. 

EXTENSION MOTIONS. 

In order to supple the figure, open the chest, and give free- 
dom to the muscles, the first three movements of the extension 
motions, as laid down for the sword exercise, are ordered to be 
practised. It is indeed, observed, that too many methods can- 
not be used to improve the carriage, and banish a rustic air ; 
but that the greatest care must be taken not to throw the 
body backward instead of forward, as being contrary to every 
true principle of movement. I accordingly here introduce these 



EXTENSION MOTIONS. 21 

extension motions, adding the fourth and fifth, and prefixing to 
each the respective word of command, in order that they may 
be the more distinctly and accurately executed. 

Attention. — The body is to be erect, the heels close together^ 
and the hands hanging down on each side. First Extension 
motion. — This serves as a caution, and the motions tend to ex- 
pand the chest, raise the head, throw back the shoulders, and 
strengthen the muscles of the back. 

One — Bring the hands and arms to the front, the fingers 
lightly touching at the points, and the nails downwards ; then 
raise them in a circular direction well above the head, the ends 
of the fingers still touching, the thumbs pointing to the rear, 
the elbows pressed back, and shoulders kept down. (Plate I. 
fig. 2.) 

Two — Separate and extend the arms and fingers, forcing 
them obliquely back, till they come extended on a line with the 
shoulders ; and as they fall gradually from thence to the original 
position of Attention, endeavour, as much as possible, to ele- 
vate the neck and chest. These two motions should be fre- 
quently practised, with the head turned as much as possible to 
the right or left, and the body kept square to the front : this 
tends very materially to supple the neck, &c. 

Three — Turn the palms of the hands to the front, pressing 
back the thumbs with the arms extended, and raise them to the 
rear, till they meet above the head ; the fingers pointing up- 
wards, with the ends of the thumbs touching. 

Four — Keep the arms and knees straight, and bend over from 
the hips till the hands touch the feet, the head being brought 
down in the same direction. (Plate I. fig. 3.) 

Five — With the arms flexible and easy from the shoulders, 
raise the body gradually, so as to resume the position of Atten- 
tion. The whole should be done very gradually, so as to feel 
the exertion of the muscles throughout. To these extension 
motions, drill-sergeants, in their instructions, add the following : 

One — the forearms are bent upon the arms upward and to- 
ward the body, having the elbows depressed, the shut hands 



22 



INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE. 



touching on the little-finger sides, and the knuckles upward, the 
latter being raised as high as the chin, and at the distance of 
about a foot before it. (Plate II. fig. 1.) 

Two — While the arms are thrown forcibly backward, the fore- 
arms are as much as possible bent upon the arms, and the 
palmar sides of the wrists are turned forward and outward 
(Plate II. fig. 2.) The two motions are to be repeatedly and 
rather quickly performed. A modification of the same move- 
ment is performed as a separate extension motion, but may be 
given in continuation, with the numbers following these, as 
words of command. 

Three — The arms are extended at full length in front, on a 
level with the shoulder, the palms of the hands in contact. 
(Plate II. fig. 3.) 

Four — Thus extended, and the palms retaining their vertical 
position, the arms are thrown forcibly backward, so that the 
backs of the hands may approach each other as nearly as pos- 
sible. These motions, also, are to be repeatedly and rather 
quickly performed. Another extension motion, similarly added, 
consists in swinging the right arm in a circle, in which, begin- 
ning from the pendent position, the arm is carried upward in 
front, by the side of the head, and downward behind, the object 
being in the latter part of this course to throw it as directly 
backward as possible. The same is then done with the left arm. 
Lastly, both arms are thus exercised together. These motions 
are performed quickly. 



THE INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE. 

THE PORTION ADOPTED IN THE ARMY. 

1st. A club is held by the handle, pendent on each side 
(Plate III. fig. 1) ; — that in the right hand is carried over the 
head and left shoulder, until it hangs perpendicularly on the 



INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE. 



23 



right side of the spine (Plate III. fig. 2) ; that in the left hand 
is carried over the former, in exactly the opposite direction 
(Plate III. fig. 2), until it hangs on the opposite side ; holding 
both clubs still pendent, the hands are raised somewhat 
higher than the head (Plate III. fig. 3) ; with the clubs in the 
same position, both arms are extended outward and backward 
(Plate IV. fig. 3) ; they are lastly dropped into the first position. 
All this is done slowly. 

2nd. Commencing from the same position, the ends of both 
clubs are swung upward until they are held, vertically and side 
by side, at arm's length in front of the body, the hands being as 
high as the shoulders (Plate IV. fig. 1); they are next carried 
in the same position, at arm's length, and on the same level, as 
far backward as possible (Plate IV. fig. 2) ; each is then dropped 
backward until it hangs vertically downward (Plate IV. fig. 3) ; 
and this exercise ends as the first. Previous, however, to 
dropping the clubs backward, it greatly improves this exercise, 
by a turn of the wrist upward and backward, to carry the clubs 
into a horizontal. position behind the shoulders, so that, if long 
enough, their ends would touch (Plate V. fig. 1); next, by a 
turn of the wrist outward and downward, to carry them hori- 
zontally outward (Plate V. fig. 2) ; then by a turn of the wrist 
upward and forward, to carry them into a horizontal position 
before the breast (Plate V. fig. 3) ; again to carry them hori- 
zontally outward ; and finally to drop them backward as already 
explained; and thence to the first position. All this is also 
done slowly. 

3rd. The clubs are to be swung by the sides, first sepa- 
rately, and then together, exactly as the hands were in the last 
extension motion. 

THE NEW AND MORE BEAUTIFUL PORTION NOW ADDED 
FROM THE INDIAN PRACTICE. 

1st. A club is held forward and upright in each hand, the 
fore-arm being placed horizontally, by the haunch on each side 
(Plate VI. fig. 1 ) ; both are thrown in a circle upward, forward, 



24 INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE. 

and, by a turn of the wrist; downward and backward, so as to 
strike under the arms (Plate VI. fig. 2) ; by an opposite move- 
ment, both are thrown back again in a similar circle, till they 
swing over the shoulders (Plate TL fig. 3) ; and this movement 
is continued as long as agreeable. 

2nd. The clubs are held obliquely upward in each hand, 
lying on the front of the arms (Plate TIL fig. 1); that in the 
right hand is allowed to fall backward (Plate TIL fig. 2), and 
swings downward, forward to the extent of the arm, and as high 
as the head (Plate VII. fig. 3) - } the moment this club begins to 
return from this point, in precisely the same direction, to the 
front of the arm, that in the left hand is allowed to drop back- 
ward, and to perform the advancing portion of this course in 
the time that the other performs the returning portion, so that 
each is at the same time swinging in an opposite direction. 

3rd. From either of the first positions now given, the clubs are, 
by a turn of the body and extension of the arms, thrown up- 
wards and laterally (Plate Till. fig. I); — make, at the extent 
of the arms, and in front of the figure, a circle in which they 
sweep downward by the feet and upward over the head ^Plate 
Till. fig. 2), and fall in a more limited curve towards the side 
on which they began (Plate Till. fig. 3), in such a manner 
that the outer one forming a circle around the shoulder and the 
inner one round the head, (both passing swiftly through the 
position in the last figure of the first exercise.) they return to 
the first position ; — this is repeated to the other side ; — and so 
on alternately. 

4th. Beginning from either first position, the body being 
turned laterally, — for example, to the left, the club in the right 
hand is thrown upward in that direction at the full extent of the 
arm (Plate IX. fig. 1), and makes the large circle in front and 
curve behind as in the last exercise (Plate IX. fig. 2), while the 
club in the left hand makes at the same time a smaller circle in 
front of the head and behind the shoulders (Plate IX. figs, 1, 
2, and 3), until crossing each other before the head (rather on 
the right side), their movements are exactly reversed, the club 




6 



26 



INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE. 



must be estimated by the fact that they are precisely those 
requiring constant artificial practice, being naturally most 
exempted from exertion. As an adjunct to Training, there 
is nothing in the whole round of gymnastic performances that 
will be found of more essential service than this exercise with 
the Indian clubs. It demands but little muscular exertion, and 
such as it does require calls chiefly upon that portion of the 
system which it finds in a state of comparative repose.] 



LOCOMOTIVE EXEECISES. 



In Walking, the position is nearly the same as that already 
described under the head Position. 

The head should be upright, easy, and capable of free motion, 
right, left, up, or down, without affecting the body. The body 
must be kept erect and square to the front, having the breast 
projected, and the stomach retracted, though not so as to injure 
either freedom of respiration or ease of attitude. The shoulders 
should be kept moderately and equally back and low ; and the 
arms should hang unconstrainedly by the sides. The balance 
on the limbs must be perfect. The knees straight, and the 
toes turned out as described, the weight of the body should 
be thrown forward, as this facilitates progression. The military 
position in walking does not essentially differ from this, except 
in points that exclusively regard the soldier ; as that the head 



28 



BALANCE STEP. 



be kept well up, and straight to the front, and the eyes not 
turned to the right or left ; the arms and hands kept perfectly 
steady by the sides, and on no account suffered to move or 
vibrate: care, however, being taken that the hand does not 
cling to the thigh, or partake in the least degree of the move- 
ment of the limb. 



THE BALANCE STEP. 

The object of this is to teach the free movement of the limbs, 
preserving at the same time perfect squareness of the shoulders, 
with the utmost steadiness of body ; and no labour is spared 
to attain this first and most essential object, which forms, in- 
deed, the very foundation of good walking. The instructor 
must be careful that a habit be not contracted of drooping or 
throwing back a shoulder at these motions, which are intended 
practically to show the true principles of walking, and that 
steadiness of body is compatible with perfect freedom in the 
limbs. 

1. — WITHOUT GAINING GROUND. 

To insure precision, the military words of command are 
prefixed. 

Caution — Balance step without gaining ground, commencing 
with the left foot. The left foot is brought gently forward with 
the toe at the proper angle to the left, the foot about three 
inches from the ground, the left heel in line with the toe of the 
right foot. 

Rear — When steady, the left foot is brought gently back 
(without a jerk), the left knee a little bent, the left toe brought 
close to the right heel. The left foot in this position will not 
be so flat as to the front, as the toe will be a little depressed. 

Front — When steady, the word Front will be given as above, 
and repeated to the Rear three or four times. 



WALKING. 



29 



Halt — To prevent fatigue, the word Halt will be given, when 
the left foot, either advanced, or to the rear, will be brought to 
the right. The instructor will afterwards cause the balance to be 
made on the left foot, advancing and retiring the right in the 
same manner. 

2. — GAINING GROUND BY THE WORD "FORWARD." 

Front — On the word Front, the left foot is brought gently to 
the front, without a jerk; the knee gradually straightened as 
the foot is brought forward, the toe turned out a little to the 
left, and remaining about three inches from the ground. This 
posture is continued for a few seconds only in the first instance, 
till practice gives steadiness in the position. 

Forward — On this word of command, the left foot is brought 
to the ground, at about thirty inches from heel to heel, while 
the right foot is raised at the same moment, and .continues ex- 
tended to the rear. The body remains upright, but inclining 
forward ; the head erect, and neither turned to the right nor 
left. 

Front — On the word Front, the right foot is brought forward, 
and so on. 



WALKING. 

Of all exercises, this is the most simple and easy. The 
weight of the body rests on one foot, while the other is ad- 
vanced ; it is then thrown upon the advanced foot, while the 
other is brought forward; and so on in succession. In this 
mode of progression, the slowness and equal distribution of 
motion is such, that many muscles are employed in a greater or 
less degree ; each acts in unison with the rest ; and the whole 
remains compact and united. Hence, the time of its move- 
ments may be quicker or slower, without deranging the union 
of the parts, or the equilibrium of the whole. It is owing to 



30 



WALKING. 



these circumstances, that walking displays so much of the 
character of the walker, — that it is light and gay in women and 
children, steady and grave in men and elderly persons, irregular 
in the nervous and irritable, measured in the affected and 
formal, brisk in the sanguine, heavy in the phlegmatic, and 
proud or humble, bold or timid, &c, in strict correspondence 
with individual character. 

The utility of walking exceeds that of all other modes of pro- 
gression. While the able pedestrian is independent of stage 
coaches and hired horses, he alone fully enjoys the scenes 
through which he passes, and is free to dispose of his time as he 
pleases. To counterbalance these advantages, greater fatigue 
is doubtless attendant on walking : but this fatigue is really the 
result of previous inactivity; for daily exercise, gradually in- 
creased, by rendering walking more easy and agreeable, and 
inducing its more frequent practice, diminishes fatigue in such 
a degree, that very great distances may be accomplished with 
pleasure, instead of painful exertion. 

Moderate walking exercises the most agreeable influence over 
all the functions. In relation to health, walking accelerates 
respiration and circulation, increases the temperature and 
cutaneous exhalation, and excites appetite and healthful nu- 
trition. Hence, as an anonymous writer observes, the true 
pedestrian, after a walk of twenty miles, comes in to breakfast 
with freshness on his countenance, healthy blood coursing in 
every vein, and vigour in every limb, while the indolent and in- 
active man, having painfully crept over a mile or two, returns 
to a dinner which he cannot digest. In ail individuals, walking 
is indispensably joined with the exercise of one or more of the 
external senses. It receives from the cerebral faculties a 
powerful influence, by which it is either accelerated or prolonged. 
Walking upon soft even ground, at a moderate pace, is an ex- 
ercise that may be taken without inconvenience, and even with 
advantage, after a meal. It is adapted for convalescents, who 
are not yet allowed to take stronger exercise. A firm, yet easy 
and graceful walk, is by no means common. There are few 



GENERAL MECHANISM OF WALKING. 



31 



men who walk well if they have not learnt to regulate their 
motions by the lessons of a master, and this instruction is still 
more necessary for ladies. Having, now, therefore, taken a 
general view of the character and utility of walking, I subjoin 
some more particular remarks on the 

GENERAL MECHANISM OF WALKING. 

For the purpose of walking, we first bear upon one leg the 
weight of the body, which pressed equally on both. The other 
leg is then raised, and the foot quits the ground by rising from 
the heel to the point. For that purpose, the leg must be bent 
upon the thigh, and the thigh upon the pelvis : the foot is then 
carried straight forward, at a sufficient height to clear the ground 
without grazing it. To render it possible, however, to move 
this foot, the haunch, which rested with its weight upon the 
thigh, must turn forward and out. As soon as, by this move- 
ment, this foot has passed the other, it must be extended on the 
leg, and the leg upon the thigh, and in this manner, by the 
lengthening of the whole member, and without being drawn 
back, it reaches the ground at a distance in advance of the other 
foot, which is more considerable according to the length of the 
step, and it is placed so softly on the ground as not to jerk or 
shake the body in the slightest degree. As soon as the foot 
which has been placed on the ground becomes firm, the weight 
of the body is transported to the limb on that side, and the 
other foot, by a similar mechanism, is brought forward in its 
turn. In all walking, the most important circumstance is, that 
the body incline forward, and that the movement of the leg 
and thigh spring from the haunch, and be free and natural. 
Viewed in this way, the feet have been well compared to the 
spokes of a wheel : the weight of the body falling upon them 
alternately. 

This exercise puts in action the extensors and flexors of the 
thighs and legs, a great number of the muscles of the trunk, 
and more or less those of the shoulder, according to the rapidity 
of the pace, and the greater or less degree of projection com- 



32 



THE MODERATE AND THE QUICK PACE. 



municated to the arm, which, in this exercise, acts as a balancer 
of the body, the motion being exactly the reverse of that 
of the corresponding leg. It draws the fluids more into the 
inferior than superior members : it gives but little strength 
to the latter. Walking may be performed in three different 
times,— slow, moderate, or quick — which somewhat modify its 
action. 

THE SLOW WALK, OR MARCH. 

In the march, the weight of the body is advanced from the 
heel to the instep, and the toes are turned out. This being 
done, one foot, the left for instance, is advanced, with the knee 
straight, and the toe inclined to the ground, which, without 
being drawn back, it touches before the heel, in such a manner, 
however, that the sole, at the conclusion of the step, is nearly 
parallel with the ground, which it next touches with its outer 
edge ; the right foot is then immediately raised from the inner 
edge of the toe, and similarly advanced, inclined, and brought 
to the ground; and so on in succession. (Plate XII. figs. 1 
and 2.) Thus, in the march, the toe externally first touches, 
and internally last leaves the ground ; and so marked is this 
tendency, that, in the stage step, which is meant to be especially 
dignified, — as the posterior foot acquires an awkward flexure 
when the weight has been thrown on the anterior, — in order to 
correct this, the former is for an instant extended, its toe even 
turned backwards and outwards, and its tip internally alone 
rested on the ground, previous to its being in its turn advanced. 
Thus the toe's first touching and last leaving the ground, is 
peculiarly marked in this grandest form of the march. This 
pace should be practised until it can be firmly and gracefully 
performed. 

THE MODERATE AND THE QUICK PACE. 

These will be best understood by a reference to the pace 
which we have just described ; the principal difference between 



THE MODERATE PACE. 



33 



them being as to the advance of the weight of the body, the 
turning out of the toes, and the part of the foot which first 
touches and last leaves the ground. We shall find that the 
times of these two paces require a further advance of the weight, 
and suffer successively less and less of turning out the toes, and 
of this extended touching with the toe, and covering the ground 
with the foot. 

THE MODERATE PACE. 

Here the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the 
ball of the foot; the toes are less turned out.; and it is no longer 
the toe» but the ball of the foot, which first touches and last 
leaves the ground ; its outer edge, or the ball of the little toe, 
first breaking the descent of the foot, and its inner edge, or the 
ball of the great toe, last projecting the weight — (Plate XII. 
figs. 3 and 4). Thus, in this step, less of the foot may be said 
actively to cover the ground ; and this adoption of nearer and 
stronger points of support and action is essential to the increased 
quickness and exertion of the pace. 

The mechanism of this pace has not been sufficiently attended 
to. People pass from the march to the quick pace they know 
not how ; and hence all the awkwardness and embarrassment of 
their walk when their pace becomes moderate, and the misery 
they endure when this pace has to be performed by them, un- 
accompanied, up the middle of a long and well-lighted room, 
where the eyes of a brilliant assembly are exclusively directed to 
them. Let those who have felt this but attend to what we have 
here said : the motion of the arms and of every other part de- 
pends on it. 

THE QUICK PACE. 

Here, the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to 
the toes ; the toes are least turned out ; and still nearer and 
stronger points of support and action are chosen. The outer 
edge of the heel first touches the ground, and the sole of the 
foot projects the weight. 

D 



34 



THE QUICK PACE. 



These are essential to the increased quickness of this pace — 
(Plate XII. figs. 5 and 6); and it is important to remark, as 
to all these paces, that the weight is successively more thrown 
forward, and the toes are successively less turned out. In the 
grandest form of the march, the toes, as we have seen, are, in 
the posterior foot, though but for a moment, even thrown hack- 
wards ; in the moderate pace, they have an intermediate direc- 
tion ; and in the quick pace, they are thrown more directly for- 
ward, as in the six figures of Plate XII. 

It is this direction of the toes, and still more the nearer and 
stronger points of support and action, namely, the heel and sole 
of the foot, which are essential to the quick pace so universally 
practised, but which, together with the great inclination of the 
body, being ridiculously transferred to the moderate pace^ make 
unfortunate people look so awkward, as we shall now explain. 
The time of the moderate pace is, as it were, filled up by the 
more complicated process of the step — by the gradual and easy 
breaking of the descent of the foot on its outer edge, or the ball 
of the little toe, by the deliberate positing of the foot, by its 
equally gradual and easy projection from its inner edge, or the ' 
ball of the great toe. The quick pace, if its time be lengthened, 
has no such filling up : the man stumps at once down on his 
heel, and could rise instantly from his sole, but finds that, to 
fill up his time, he must pause an instant ; he feels he should do 
something, and does not know what ; his hands suffer the same 
momentary paralysis as his feet \ he gradually becomes confused 
and embarrassed : deeply sensible of this, he at last exhibits it 
externally ; a smile or a titter arises, though people do not well 
know at what ; but, in short, the man has walked like a clown, 
because the mechanism of his step has not filled up its time, or 
answered its purpose* 

I trust that the mechanism and time of the three paces are 
here simply, clearly, and impressively described. The following 
is the more imperfect, but still useful, military description, with 
its words of command : — 



/ 



/ 



DOUBLE MARCH. 



SLOW STEP. 

March.— On the word March, the left foot is carried thirty 
inches to the front, and, without being drawn back, is placed 
softly on the ground, so as not to jerk or shake the body : 
seventy-five of these steps to be taken in a minute. (The recruit 
is ordered to be carefully trained, and thoroughly instructed in 
this step, as an essential foundation for arriving at accuracy in 
the paces of more celerity. This is the slowest step at which 
troops are to move.) 

QUICK STEP. 

The cadence of the slow pace having become perfectly habitual, 
a quick time is next taught, which is 108 steps in a minute, each 
of thirty inches, making 270 feet in a minute. 

Quick March.— The command Quick March being given with 
a pause between them, the word Quick is to be considered as a 
caution, and the whole to remain perfectly steady. On the word 
March, the whole move off, conforming to the directions already 
given. (This pace is applied generally to all movements by large 
as well as small bodies of troops ; and therefore the recruit is 
trained and thoroughly instructed in this essential part of his 
duty.) 

DOUBLE MARCH. 

The directions for the march apply, in a great degree, to this 
step, which is 150 steps in a minute, each of thirty-six inches, 
making 450 feet in a minute. 

Double March.— On the word Double March, the whole step 
off together with the left feet, keeping the head erect, and the 
shoulders square to the front; the knees are a little bent; the 
body is more advanced than in the other marches; the arms 
hang with ease down the outside of the thighs. The person 
marching is carefully habituated to the full pace of thirty-six 
inches, otherwise he gets into the habit of a short trot, which 
defeats the obvious advantages of this degree of march. In the 

d 2 



36 



FEATS IN WALKING. 



army, great advantage attends the constant use of the plummet ; 
and the several lengths swinging the times of the different 
marches in a minute, are as follow : — 

In. Hun. 

Slow time . . 75 steps in the minute . . . 24,96 
Quick time . . 108 „ „ ... 12,03 

Double march . 150 „ „ ... 6,26 

A musket ball, suspended by a string which is not subject to 
stretch, and on which are marked the different required lengths, 
answers the above purpose, may be easily acquired, and is 
directed to be frequently compared with an accurate standard in 
the adjutant's possession. The length of the plummet is to be 
measured from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball. 
In practising all these paces, the pupils should also be accus- 
tomed to march upon a narrow plane, where there is room for 
only one foot, upon rough uneven ground, and on soft ground 
which yields to the foot. 

Walking exercises a greater influence over the economy when 
it takes place on inclined planes than on a flat surface. In 
ascending, the effort is made in a direction directly opposed to 
the general tendency of heavy bodies : the body is strongly bent, 
the upper part of the trunk in advance; the action of the poste- 
rior and anterior muscles of the thigh is considerable ; and cir- 
culation and respiration are speedily accelerated by the violence 
of the muscular contractions. In descending, on the contrary, 
effort is requisite to keep up the body, which tends to obey the 
laws of gravitation ; and to moderate the tendency of gravity to 
project forward in the centre, the body is thrown back, the sacro- 
spinal mass, and the posterior muscles of the neck, are strongly 
contracted, the knees bent, and the steps much shorter. Men 
with long flat feet, and the heel bone little projecting, are bad 
walkers. 

FEATS IN WALKING. 

The power of walking great distances without fatigue is an 
important matter, in which the English have of late excelled. 
A good walker will do six miles an hour, for one hour, on a good 



RUNNING. 



37 



road.* If in perfect training, he may even do twelve miles in 
two hours. Eighteen miles in three hours is a much more 
doubtful affair, though some are said to have achieved it. 

A Cork paper, of recent date, describes a match of ten miles 
in 120 minutes, on the Mallow and Fermoy road, by Captain 
John T. G. Campbell, of the 91st (Argyleshire) Regiment, ac- 
coutred in heavy marching order of a private soldier, viz., with 
knapsack and kit, great-coat and mess-tin, musket, bayonet, 
and sixty rounds of ball cartridge : total, fifty pounds' weight. 
Heavy bets were pending on the issue. The captain started at 
eight o'clock, a.m., and performed this undertaking in the short 
time of 107 minutes and a quarter, thus winning the match, and 
having twelve minutes and three quarters to spare. 

At the rate of five miles an hour, pedestrians of the first class 
will do forty miles in eight hours, and perhaps fifty in ten.f At 
the rate of four miles an hour, a man may walk any length of 
time. Robert Skipper walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive 
half-hours, on the same ground Captain Barclay walked 1000 
miles in 1000 successive hours. 

In the art of walking quickly, the circumstance perhaps most 
important is, to keep the knees somewhat bent and springy. 



RUNNING. 

" Running," says one of our gymnasiarchs, " only differs from 
walking by the rapidity of the movement." This is quite in- 
correct. Running is precisely intermediate to walking and leap- 
ing ; and, in order to pass into it from walking, the motion must 
be changed. A series of leaps from each foot alternately must 

* Seven miles in one hour are said to have been done by some. 

t A clever writer in Blackwood's Magazine says, " There can be no doubt 
that, out of the British army, on a war establishment, ten thousand men 
might be chosen, by trial, who would compose a corps capable of marching 
fifty miles a day, on actual service, for a whole week. The power of such a 
corps is not to be calculated : it would far outgo cavalry." 



POSITION AND ACTION IN RUNNING. 



be performed, in order to constitute it ; the foot which is left 
behind quits the ground before the foot in advance is firmly 
fixed, so that the centre of gravity remains uncertain in passmg 
from one leg to the other, which forms a series of leaps, and 
renders a fall a common occurrence. 

POSITION IN RUNNING. 

The upper part of the body is slightly inclined forward ; the 
head slightly thrown backward, to counteract the gravity for- 
ward: the breast is freely projected; the shoulders are steady, 
to give a fixed point to the auxiliary muscles of respiration : the 
upper parts of the arms are kept near the sides ; the elbows are 
bent, and each forms an acute angle ; the hands are shut, with 
the nails turned inwards; and the whole arms move but slightly, 
in order that the muscles of respiration on the chest may be as 
little as possible disturbed, and follow only the impulse com- 
municated by other parts— (Plate XIII. fig. 1). There exists, 
in fact, dining the whole time of running, a strong and perma- 
nent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder and arm, which, 
though very violent, is less serviceable to the extended move- 
ments, than to keep the chest immoveable, toward which the 
arms are brought close, the flexors and adductors of which are 
especially contracted. 

ACTION IN RUNNING. 

At every step, the knees are stretched out ; the legs kept as 
straight as possible ; the feet almost graze the ground ; the 
tread is neither with the mere balls of the toes, nor with the 
whole sole of the foot ; and the spring is made rapidly from one 
foot to the other, so that they pass each other with great velo- 
city— (Plate XIII. fig. 2). 

But the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion, 
although it is in them that the greatest developement takes 
place. Throughout the whole time of running, a strong and 
permanent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder, arm, and 
forearm takes place : this, though very violent, is less for the ? 



RESPIRATION 



— MODERATE RUNNING. 



39 



purpose of aiding motion than of preserving the immobility of 
the thorax, which is pressed upon the whole thoracic member, 
whose flexors and adductors are strongly contracted. The de- 
gree of velocity, however, must be proportioned to the length of 
the steps. Too slow and long, as well as too quick and short, 
steps, may be equally injurious. 

RESPIRATION. 

Speed, and still more duration in running, are in proportion 
to the developement of the lungs, and consequently the volume 
of oxygen and blood which they can combine m their parenchyma 
at each respiratory movement. Thus, of two men, one having 
the abdominal members developed, and the other possessing 
good lungs, the former will run with the greatest speed for a 
short distance, but if the distance be considerable, he will soon 
be gained upon by the latter. A runner, after performing a cer- 
tain space, is seized with a difficulty of breathing, long before 
the repetition of the contractions has produced fatigue in the 
abdominal members. To excel, therefore, in running, requires, 
like walking and dancing, a peculiar exercise. As the muscular 
contractions depend, for their principle of excitement, on the 
respiration, the chest should be firmly fixed, so as both to faci- 
litate this, and to serve as a point of support for the efforts of 
the lower members. The best runners are those who have the 
best wind, and keep the breast dilated for the longest time. 

During the whole time of running, long inspirations and slow 
expirations are of the greatest importance ; and young persons 
cannot be too early accustomed to them. To facilitate respira- 
tion towards the end of the race, the upper part of the body 
may be leant a little forward. Running should cease as soon as 
the breath becomes very short, and a strong perspiration takes 
place. 

MODERATE RUNNING. 

This is performed gently and in equal time, and may be ex- 
tended to a considerable space. In practising this pace, it is 



40 



RAPID RUNNING. 



necessary to fix the distance to be run ; and this should always 
be proportioned to the age and strength of the runners. This 
exercise, more than all others, requires to be proceeded with in 
a progressive manner. If, at the first trial, you run too fast or 
too long a time, it may produce spitting of blood and headache, 
or aneurisms of the heart and principal vessels, especially if the 
leather be dry and cold. 

A moderately cool day may accordingly be chosen, a distance 
of three hundred feet measured, and the runners placed in a line 
at one end. They may then start, trot at the rate of about seven 
feet in a second to the opposite end, turn, and continue until 
they reach the spot whence they started. Frequent repetition 
of this is sufficient at first. Afterwards, they may run over this 
space, two, three, or four times without stopping ; and the ex- 
ercise may then be limited to this. It may, on subsequent days, 
be extended to five, six, and seven times the distance. 

Fatigue is then generally quite removed ; and the run may 
either be continued farther, or the runners, if neither heated nor 
winded, may accelerate their pace. They may next attempt a 
mile in ten minutes ; and repeat this, till, being gradually less 
and less heated, they can either extend the distance, or diminish 
the time, in any measured proportion. At this pace, six miles 
may afterwards be run in an hour. 

RAPID RUNNING. 

This is best applied to a short space in a little time. Three 
hundred feet upon an open plain will not generally be found too 
great. At each end of this, a cross line may be drawn, and the 
runners may arrange themselves on one line, while the umpire 
is placed at the other. On the latter giving the signal, the 
running commences, and he who first passes him gains the race. 
It is extremely useful always to run beyond the line at a gentler 
pace, as it gradually lowers the actions of the respiratory and 
circulating systems. 

Running is more easy on a level surface, but should be prac- 
tised on ground of every variety : upon long, square, and circular 



EFFECTS OF RUNNING. 



41 



plots of ground. The pupils should be accustomed to turn 
promptly out of the direct line — a faculty not possessed by ani- 
mals, and exceedingly useful when pursued. They should also 
run up hill, and particularly down, as it is dangerous unless fre- 
quently practised. 

FEATS IN RUNNING. 

The practice of running may be carried to a great degree of 
perfection. 

A quarter of a mile in a minute is good running ; and a mile 
in four minutes, at four starts, is excellent. 

The mile was perhaps never run in four minutes, but it has 
been done in four minutes and a half.* 

A mile in five minutes is good running. Two miles in ten 
minutes is oftener failed in than accomplished. Four miles m 
twenty is said to puzzle the cleverest. 

Ten miles an hour is done by all the best runners. Fifteen 
miles in an hour and a half has never perhaps been done. 

It is reported that West ran forty miles in five hours and a 
half. This, it is said, was done by one individual in four hours 
and three quarters, or less. 

As to great distances, Rainer failed in two attempts to accom- 
plish 100 miles in eighteen hours. West is said to have accom- 
plished this. 

EFFECTS OF RUNNING. 

In running, the mass of our organs is agitated by violent and 
constant shocks, which succeed with rapidity; but the abdominal 
members are not the only ones in motion, although they are 
those in which the developement is most considerable. Running 
developes not only the abdominal members, but has a strong 
influence upon the respiratory parts. This exercise is particu- 
larly suited to young persons, especially those of a lymphatic 
temperament. It should not, however, be practised after meals. 

* Half a mile was recently run in two minutes ; but it was down a fall as 
precipitous as a mountain's side, and the performer was blind in the last 
twenty yards.— Ed. Fifth Edition. 



42 



LEAPING. 



LEAPING. 

Leaping consists principally in the sudden straightening of 
the articulations, performed by a strong and instantaneous con- 
traction of the extensors, by which the body is rapidly projected 
from the ground. 

The leaping-stand consists of two moveable posts, above six 
feet high, having, above the second foot from the ground, holes 
bored through them, at the distance of an inch from each other; 
two iron pins to be placed in the holes at any height; a cord, at 
least ten feet long, passed over these pins, and kept straight by 
two sand- bags at its ends ; and weights upon the feet of the 
posts, to prevent them from falling — (Plate XI Y. fig. 1). The 
leap over the cord is made from the side of the stand towards 
which the heads of the pegs are turned; so that, if the feet touch 
the cord, it will easily and instantly fall. 

In all kinds of leaping, it is of great importance to draw in 
and retain the breath at the moment of the greatest effort, as it 
gives the chest more solidity to support the rest of the members, 
impels the blood into the muscular parts, aud increases their 
strength. The hands, also, should be shut, and the arms pendent. 
The extent of the leap in height, or horizontally, is proportioned 
to the power employed, and the practice acquired. As it is per- 
formed with facility only in proportion to the strength exerted, 
and the elasticity and suppleness of the articulations and muscles 
of the lower extremities, much exercise is necessary to attain 
that degree of perfection which lessens all obstacles, and supplies 
the means of clearing them without danger. Lightness and firm- 
ness are the qualities necessary for leaping : every thing should 
be done to acquire these two qualifications, for without them 
leaping is neither graceful nor safe. 

THE HIGH LEAP. 
Without a Run. 

In this, the legs and feet are closed ; the knees are bent till 
the calves nearly touch the thighs ; the upper part of the body, 



THE HIGH LEAP. 



43 



kept straight, is inclined a little forward ; and the arms thrown 
in the direction of the leap, which increases the impulse, pre- 
serves the balance, and may be useful in a fall. (Plate XIV. 

The vertebral column, and consequently the whole of the 
trunk, being thus bent forward, a strong contraction of the 
muscles preserves this bending till the moment when the leap 
takes place ; then, by sudden contraction of the extensors, the 
body stretches out like a bow when the string breaks, is thus 
jerked forward, and remains suspended a longer or shorter time 
in the air. 

In descending, the person should be rather inclined forward ; 
and the fall should take place on the fore part of the feet, 
bending the knees and haunches, to deaden the shock and 
descent ; for, the direct descent in this leap, if not thus broken, 
would send its shock from the heels to the spine and head, and 
might occasion injury. To perpendicularity in this leap, should 
be added lightness, so that scarcely any noise from the leap 
should be heard. 

This leap, without a run, may be practised at the height, — • 

1. Of the knees. I 3. Of the hips. 

2. Of the middle of the thighs. ' 4. Of the lower ribs. 

With a Run. 

The run preceding the leap should never exceed ten paces, 
the distance between the point of springing and the cord being 
equal to half the cord's height from the ground. The view of 
the leaper should be directed first to the spot whence he is to 
spring; and, the moment he has reached that, to the cord, 
accustoming himself to spring from either foot, and from both 
feet. 

The instant the spring is made, or (if it be made with one 
foot) immediately after, the feet should be closed, and the knees 
drawn forcibly towards the chin. Thoughout, flexibility and 



4-1 



LEAPING. 



skill, not violent exertion, should be displayed. This leap, vrith 
a run, may be practised at the height, — 

1 . Of the hips. 5. Of the chin. 

2. Of the lower ribs. 6. Of the eyes. 

3. Of the pit of the stomach. 7. Of the crown of the head. 

4. Of the breast. 

Feats in High Leaping. 

A good high leaper will clear five feet ; a first-rate one, five 
and a half; and an extraordinary one, six feet. Ireland is men- 
tioned as having cleared an extended cord at the height of 
fourteen feet. Another man, it is said, jumped to the height 
of seventeen feet, which was three times the height of his own 
body.* 

THE LONG LEAP. 
Without a Run. 

This is generally performed upon straight firm ground, on 
which there are marks, or parallel lines, at equal distances. 
The first of these lines is the place to leap from. The leapers 
succeed each other, and clear a greater number of lines accord- 
ing to their strength and skill. Here the feet are closed; the 
whole weight rests upon the balls of the toes ; and the body is 
inclined forward. Both arms are then swung forward, — back- 
ward, — then drawn strongly forward, — and at the same instant 
the limbs, having been bent, are extended with the utmost 
possible force. 

In performing this leap, the hands and body must be bent 
forward, especially at the end of the movement, when the 
leaper alights. On level ground twelve feet is a good standing 
leap ; and fourteen is one of comparatively rare occurrence. 

With a Run. 

This leap is best executed with a run ; and we have there- 
* The author means, with the aid of a spring-board.— £d. Fifth Edition. 



THE LONG LEAP. 



45 



fore dwelt less upon the former. Here, also, the body must be 
inclined forward. 

The run should be made over a piece of firm, and not slip- 
pery ground, to the extent of ten, fifteen, or twenty paces ; 
should consist of small steps, increasing in quickness as they 
approach the point of springing ; and these should be so calcu- 
lated as to bring upon the point that foot with which the leaper 
is accustomed to spring. The spring, as here implied, should 
be performed with one foot, and the arms thrown forcibly to- 
wards the place proposed to be reached. The height as well as 
the length of the leap, must be calculated ; for the leap is 
shortened by not springing a proper height. (Plate XIV. fig. 2.) 

In the descent, the feet are closed, the knees bent, the upper 
part of the body inclined forward, and the toes first touch the 
ground, at which moment, a light spring, and afterwards some 
short steps, are made, in order to avoid any sudden check. 
In a much extended leap, however, alighting on the toes is 
impossible. A sort of horizontal swing is then achieved, by 
which the leaper's head is little higher than his feet, and his 
whole figure is almost parallel with the ground ; and, in this 
case, to alight on the toes is impossible. Care must here be 
taken not to throw the feet so much forward as to cause the 
leaper to fall backward at the moment of descent. The ground 
must be cleared, or the leap is imperfect and unfair. 

This leap may be practised at, — 

1. Double the length of the body. 

2. Twice and a half that length. 

3. Three times that length. 

Feats in Long Leaping. 

On level ground, twenty feet is a first-rate leap ; twenty-one 
is extraordinary ; and twenty-two is very rarely accomplished.* 
With a run and a leap, on a slightly inclined plane, twenty- 
three feet have been done. 

* I have seen twenty-two feet covered forwards and backwards, by an Irish 
tailor.— Ed. Fifth Edition. 



4d 



LEAPING. 



Of the various kinds of leaps, the first or simple leap, which 
is produced principally by the extension of the abdominal mem- 
bers, which impel the body either straight upwards, in the 
vertical leap, or obliquely upwards and forwards, in the hori- 
zontal or rather parabolic leap, requires, in addition to the 
contraction of the abdominal members, especially if the leap be 
executed with the feet close together, a violent action of the 
muscles of the abdomen, upper parts of the back, anterior parts 
of the loins, and of the thorax and shoulders. 

THE DEEP LEAP. 

This may be made either with or without the hands. In 
either way, to avoid the shock, the body must be kept in a bent 
position, and the fall be upon the balls of the toes. When the 
hands are used, the leaper places them in front of the feet ; and 
during the descent, the weight of the body is checked by the 
former, and passes in a diminished state to the latter ; so that 
the shock is obviated. 

A flight of steps serves the purpose of this exercise. The 
leaper ascends a certain number ; leaps from the side : gradually 
increases the number ; and, by practising progressively higher, 
finds it easy to leap from heights which at first appalled him. 
He afterwards combines the long and deep leaps. For this 
purpose, a rivulet, which has one bank high and the opposite 
one low, is very favourable. Children can easily take a leap of 
nine feet in descending. 

THE DEEP LEAP BACKWARDS, FROM A REST OX THE 
HANDS. 

This exercise is first performed from platforms of various 
heights, and from walls of various elevations. The object is to 
lessen the shock that the legs and body experience in reaching 
the ground at a depth of more than six or seven feet, and to 
diminish the distance if possible, at the same time that it 
diminishes the violence and velocity of the fall. All this is 
easily managed by observing the following rules. 



THE DEEP LEAP BACKWARDS. 



47 



Suppose the pupil placed upon a platform of four or six feet 
in height, he must first examine the place he is ahout to leap 
to, so as to select the most favourable part, free from stones and 
other obstacles. He will then approach the extremity of the 
platform, with his back towards it, and bend his body, placing 
his hands in the position shown in Plate XV. fig. L Having 
taken up this position securely, he will lean his head a little 
forward, raise his toes from the platform, and remain for an 
instant supported by the arms. The body then begins to ex- 
tend, and the legs to lengthen downward and backwards ; the 
arms follow this movement, bend, and support the body by the 
hands, which have a secure resting-place on the edge of the 
platform, as in Plate XV. fig. 2. This descending movement is 
executed as slowly as possible : the arms stretch out to their 
utmost length, till the body is sustained by the last phalanx of 
the fingers, or touches the ground with the feet. If it does not 
reach the ground, the pupil drops gently down on the tips of his 
toes, bends himself, and recovers his upright position. 

There is another mode of descending, when the last resting- 
place for the hands is the top of a counterfort, or prop on a 
wall without a counterfort. This consists (see Plate XV. fig. 3) 
in seizing the last hold with the right hand for instance, and in 
hanging firmly by that hand, whilst the left, being at liberty, is 
lowered and pushes back the body from the projecting stones in 
the walls, to prevent injury in the descent. The impulse thus 
given is, however, very trifling, and solely to avoid hurt, without 
increasing the violence of the fall, which ought to be facilitated 
on reaching the ground by the rules already given. By these 
means, the height of a wall is relatively diminished, for a man 
who hangs suspended by his arms, has six feet less to drop than 
he who has his feet where he might put his hands. 

The down leap, unless gradually practised, may produce 
ruptures of the diaphragm. \Vhen, however, the elevation from 
which the leap is taken is gradually increased, the eye becomes 
accustomed to measure the most extensive distances fearlessly, 
at the same time that by practice the abdominal members leara 



48 



VAULTING. 



to bend properly under the weight of the trunks and thereby 
preserve the organs contained in it from serious injuries. In 
this kind of leap, the shocks will be diminished by retaining the 
air in the chest, which may be done by closing the glottis. 

Persons who have long toes, powerful calves, and prominent 
heels, are the best adapted for leaping. 



VAULTING. 

In vaulting, by a spring of the feet, the body is raised, and by 
leaning the hands upon a fixed object, it at the same time re- 
ceives, in oblique vaulting, a swing which facilitates the action. 
As the inclination thus given to the body depends not merely 
on the feet, but on the hands, we have the power to guide the 
body in any direction. 

This exercise is conveniently practised on the vaulting bar, 
which rests upon two or three posts. It may be performed with 
or without running. The beginner may at first be allowed a 
run of a few paces, ending in a preparatory spring ; and he may 
afterwards be allowed only a spring. 

OBLIQUE VAULTING. 

To mount, the vaulter must place himself in front of the bar ; 
make a preparatory spring with the feet close ; fix at that mo- 
ment both hands upon the bar ; heave himself up, and swing 
the right leg over. The body, supported by the hands, may 
then easily descend into the riding position. To dismount, the 
vaulter, supported by the hands, must extend the feet, make a 
little swing forward, and a greater one backward, so as to heave 
both feet behind over the bar, and spring to the ground with 
them close. 

To do this he must first clearly define to himself the place 
where he intends to fall. Then, having placed both hands 
upon the bar, he should first bend and then extend the joints, 



1 





STRAIGHT- FORWARD VAULTING. 



49 



so as to raise the body with all his strength, and throw his legs, 
kept close, high over the bar. (Plate XVI. fig. 1.) TThen the 
right hand (if he vault to the right) quits the bar, the left re- 
mains, the feet reach the ground on the opposite side, and he 
falls on both feet, with the knees projected, and the hands 
readv, if necessary, to break the fall. 

In vaulting to the right, the left foot passes in the space 
which was between both the hands, the right hand quits the bar, 
and the left guides the body in the descent. In vaulting to the 
left, the right foot passes in the space which was between both 
hands, the left hand quits the bar, and the right guides the body 
in its descent. As, however, it is difficult for beginners to vault 
either way, this is not to be attempted until after sufficient 
practice in the way which may be easiest. The vaidter may 
then, with a preparatory spring, try the following heights, — 

1. That of the pit of the stomach. 

2. That of a middling-sized horse. 
• 3. His own height or more. 

STRAIGHT-FORWARD VAULTING. 

For this purpose, both hands must be placed at such distance 
on the bar as to give room for the feet between them ; the body 
should be forcibly raised ; the knees drawn up towards the 
breast ; and the feet brought between the hands, without moving 
them from their place. (Plate XVI. fig. 2.) This should be 
practised iintil it can be done easily. 

This straight-forward vault may have three different termina- 
tions. When the feet are in the space between the hands, the 
vaulter may stand upright. He may pass his feet to the op- 
posite side, whilst he seats himself. He may continue the leap 
over the seat, through the arms, letting both hands go at once 
after the legs have passed. 



50 



LEAPING WITH A POLE. 



LEAPING WITH A POLE. 

This is a union of leaping and vaulting, in which the vaulter, 
instead of supporting himself upon a fixed object, carries with 
him a pole, which he applies to whatever spot he chooses. In 
supporting the body by a pole during the leap, a great deal also 
depends upon balancing, as well as on the strength of the arms 
and legs. 

THE HIGH LEAP WITH A POLE. 

The pole prescribed for this exercise is the planed stem of 
a straight- grown fir, from seven to ten feet long, and about two 
inches thick at the bottom. Such a pole naturally diminishes 
towards the top ; and it is better to plane off the lower end a 
little. Care must be taken that it be sufficiently strong ; such 
as make a crackling noise during the leap should be immediately 
thrown aside. 

The learner, supposed to be already expert in leaping and 
vaulting, may at first place himself before a small ditch, with a 
pole, which he holds in such a manner, that the right hand be 
about the height of the head, and the left about that of the hips, 
and in this case he must fix it in the ditch. (See Plate XVII. 
fig. 1.) He must then, by making a spring with his left foot, 
endeavour to rest the weight of his body upon the pole, and, 
thus supported, swing himself to the opposite bank. In this 
swing, he passes his body by the right of the pole, making, at 
the same time, a turn, so that, at the descent, his face is 
directed to the place whence he leaped. The faults usually 
committed by the beginner, consist in his trusting to the pole 
the whole weight of the body ; and in losing the necessary 
purchase by keeping at too great a distance from it. 

This leap cannot be made with proper force and facility unless 
the fixing of the pole in the ground and the spring are made 
exactly at the same moment. To acquire this, the learner should 
place himself at the distance of a moderate pace in front of the 



THE HIGH LEAP WITH A POLE. 



51 



ditch ; raise the left foot and the pole together ; plant both to- 
gether, the former in the spot whence he intends making the 
spring, and the latter in the ditch ; then instantly swing him- 
self round the pole, to the opposite bank. As soon as he can 
easily take the proper position and balance, he may endeavour 
to swing his legs higher ; and in proportion as he becomes more 
expert, he must place his hands higher up the pole, in order to 
have a greater swing. He must afterwards make a previous 
run of two, three, or four paces, gradually increasing in velocity ; 
and always taking care that the springing foot and the pole 
come to the ground at the same moment. When this difficulty 
is overcome, he may practise the exercise over the leaping- 
stand. 

In leaping over the cord, the learner must take the pole in both 
hands ; make a rather quick run : conclude this with the spring, 
and planting the pole at the same moment ; raise rapidly his 
whole body, by means of this spring and a powerful support on 
the pole, and swing over the cord ; turning his body so that, 
at the descent, his face is directed to the place whence he 
sprung. This is a general description of the high leap ; but it 
is necessary to explain the parts into which it may be divided, 
as follows, — 

1. In the handling the pole (Plate XVII. fig. 1), it is im- 
material, as to the lower hand, whether the thumb or the little 
finger be uppermost: the upper hand must have the thumb 
upward. The position of the upper hand is regulated by that 
of the lower one : as this advances higher up, the former must 
be proportionally raised. The lower hand then must be placed 
at a height proportionate to that of the leap : thus, if the latter 
be six feet, the lower hand must be at least from five and a half 
to six feet from the lower end of the pole. The leaper is, after 
a little practice, enabled to seize the pole in the proper way, 
from a mere glance at the leap. 

2. The preparatory run of from twelve to fifteen paces is 
accelerated as the leaper approaches the cord. Upon this run 
principally depend the facility and the success of the leap. As 

e 2 



52 



LEAPING WITH A POLE. 



the spring can take place only with one foot, and as this must 
arrive correctly at the springing place, it is necessary that the 
order of the steps should be arranged so as to effect this object. 
If the leaner should be obliged to correct himself by making a 
few steps, either longer or shorter, just before making the spring, 
the leap is rendered difficult. 

3. The fixing of the pole in the ground, and the spring, must 
take place at the same instant, because by that means the upper 
and lower members operate together, no power is lost, and the 
swing is performed with the greatest facility. The place of the 
pole, however, varies with the height of the leaps ; in leaps of 
about four feet, the distance of one foot from the cord is suffi- 
cient ; in higher leaps, it should be from one and a half to two 
feet. The best plan is to have a small pit dug in front of the 
cord (see Plate XVII. figs. 2 and 3), and to remove the stand 
from it, as the height of the leap increases ; or the stand may 
remain at a foot and a half from the pit, and the learner be 
taught to make all the leaps from it. The spring is made with 
one foot, at the distance of two, three, four, or five feet from 
the plant of the pole. If the leaper keep the left hand lowest, 
he must spring with the left foot, and vice versa. 

4. The swing upward is effected by the force of the spring, 
the support of the lower, and the pull of the upper hand ; but 
principally by the propulsion of the rim, which being sud- 
denly modified by the fixing of the pole, has its horizontal 
direction changed into a slanting ascent, and carries the body of 
the leaper over the cord. The leaper must carefully observe 
that the spring of the foot, and the plant of the pole, be in the 
direction of the preparatory run. 

5. The turning of the body during the swinging upward, is 
necessary. When the leaper is going to spring, he has his face 
turned towards the object of the leap, as in Plate XVII. fig. 1 ; 
but as his feet swing, his body turns round the pole. When his 
feet have passed over the other side of the cord, the head is still 
considerably on this side : the leaper then appears as in fig. 2. 
Speedily, the middle of his body is on the other side of the 



THE HIGH LEAP WITH A POLE. 



53 



cord, and he begins the descent, as in fig. 3. It would be im- 
possible to descend in this position otherwise than with his face 
directed to the place where the leap was commenced. 

6. The quitting of the pole during the leap is effected by 
giving it a push with one hand, at the moment of greatest 
height, and this causes it to fall on the inner side of the cord. 

7. The earning of the pole over the cord is more difficult. 
The leaper must then raise the pole a little from the ground at 
the moment of beginning the descent, and instantly elevate the 
lower part of it with the lowest hand, and depress the upper 
part with the other ; the consequence being, that, at the descent, 
the lower end of the pole will point upward, and the upper end 
downward. This should be practised first in low leaps. 

8. The descent depends entirely upon the manner in which 
the leap is made : if the leap be perfect, the descent will be so. 
The usual fault in descending is, that the leaper, having passed 
the cord, falls to the ground almost perpendicularly instead of 
obliquely. In the annexed figure, a is the place whence the 
spring is made, c the section of the cord, b the position of the 
leaper over it, d his right, and e his wrong descent. The latter 




is faulty because it throws him so much out of balance, that in 
order not to fall backward, he must run backward to d. If, on 
the contrary, he descends in proper balance to the ground, he 
moves not an inch from the spot where his feet alight ; and this 
complete rest following the descent is the sign of a perfect leap. 
The descent, as already explained, must take place upon the 
balls of the toes, and with a sinking of the knees. The position 



54 



LEAPING WITH A POLE. 



of the body is sufficiently explained by Plate XVII. figs. 1, 2, 
and 3; but many learn to swing the legs so well as to raise them, 
during the highest part of the leap, considerably above the head. 
Order of exercises in the high leap, to be very gradually at- 
tempted : — 



1. The height of the hips. 

2. That of the pit of the stomach. 

3. That of the chin. 

4. That of the crown of the head. 



5. That of the points of the fingers 
—that is, as high as the latter can 
reach. 



In performing these leaps, the pole is parted with. As many 
more may form a repetition of the preceding, with this difference, 
that the leaper carries the pole over with him. A similar num- 
ber may repeat the first, except that the leaper, between the 
spring and descent, makes a complete turn round the pole, so 
as again to bring his face in the direction of the leap. This en- 
larged turn is rendered easier by leaping a little higher than the 
cord requires. 

THE LONG LEAP WITH A POLE. 

This leap is the most useful, being applicable almost every- 
where; and particularly in a country intersected with small 
rivers, ditches, &c. It should be first practised over a ditch 
about three feet deep, eight feet broad at one end, and about 
twenty-one feet at the other, and of any convenient length. In 
this exercise, the pole should be rather stronger and longer than 
in the preceding one — depending, however, on the length of the 
leap, and the height of the bank it is made from. The usual 
length is from ten to thirteen feet. 

The handling of the pole is the same as in the high leap. The 
preparatory run is rapid, in proportion to the length of the leap. 
The spring takes place as in the preceding exercise. The swing 
is also the same, except that the curve of the leap is wider. The 
turning of the body may likewise be similar, but it is convenient 
to make only a quarter turn. In the descent, the hand presses 
more upon the pole ; and the feet are stretched out to reach the 



THE DEEP LEAP WITH A POLE. 



55 



opposite bank, as in Plate XVIII. fig. 1, in which the leaper is 
descending. Another method of leaping a river, is to force the 
body up so high by the pressure of the hands (of which one rests 
upon the end of the pole, or very near it), as to swing over the 
top of the pole, and allow it to pass between the legs when de- 
scending. (Plate XVIII. fig. 2.) 
Try the following : — 

1. The leap of two lengths of the 3. That of four lengths of the body, 
body. 4. Persons of equal strength try to 

2. That of three lengths of the body. | outleap one another. 

The lengths of 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet are frequently done by 
practised leapers. 

THE DEEP LEAP WITH A POLE. 

Here neither the preparatory run nor the spring occur : there 
is nothing which requires the exertion of the lower members. 
The use of the hands and arms, however, is peculiarly requisite, 
as well as a little of the art of balancing. The leaper fixes the 
pole, at a convenient distance from the place where he stands, 
in a chasm, ditch, or river, having one bank high, and the oppo- 
site one low. Seizing it with both hands in the usual way, he 
slips along it lower and lower ; the whole weight of his body, at 
last, resting upon it. Thus, if the depth is considerable, as two 
lengths of the body, he may slide so far down upon it, that his 
head appears slanting downward. In this position, he makes a 
shght push against the bank, or merely quits it, with his feet, 
which he swings by the side of the pole to the opposite bank. 
Here, also, the descent is performed upon the balls of the toes, 
with bending of the knees. The principal advantage in this leap 
lies in the art of supporting the body, without tottering ; and 
for this purpose, it is absolutely necessary that the feet should 
be stretched out far from each other, in an angular form, other- 
wise the balance might be lost. The best way of practising this 
in an exercise ground, is by a flight of steps. 

To the exercise of the abdominal members, these leaps unite 



56 



BALANCING. 



a strong action of the muscles of the thorax, arms, and fore- 
arms, and even of those of the palms of the hand. The body is 
only half impelled by the abdominal members; but this impulse 
is rendered complete by considerable effort on the part of the 
thoracic members. The latter, in the vertical leap, being sup - 
ported by the narrow and moveable base afforded by the pole, 
assist greatly in raising the body, and even keep it a moment 
suspended for the legs to pass over (if the object to be cleared 
is very high) before it allows the body to obey the force of 
gravity which carries it down. 

This exercise communicates what is termed great lightness to 
the body, and great suppleness — that is to say, great relative 
strength of the abdominal members ; and it also developes the 
superior members. It is good for lymphatic temperaments and 
young persons, but it should not be indulged in immediately 
after meals. It may occasion accidents of the brain and spinal 
marrow, unless all the articulations are bent on returning to the 
ground. 



BALANCING. 

Balancing is the art of preserving the stability of the ho&y 
upon a narrow or a moving surface. The balancing bar consists 
of a round and tapering pole, supported horizontally, about three 
feet from the ground, by upright posts, one at its thicker ex- 
tremity, and another about the middle, between the parts of 
which it may be raised or lowered by means of an iron peg 
passing through holes in their sides. The unsupported end of 
the bar wavers ; of course, when stepped upon — (Plate XIX.) 

The upper surface of the bar being smooth in dry weather, 
the soles of the shoes should be damped ; the ground about the 
bar should consist of sand, and the exercises be cautiously per- 
formed. 



TURNS IN BALANCING. 



57 



POSITION AND ACTION IN BALANCING. 

In this exercise, the head should be held up, the body erect, 
the shoulders back, the arms extended, the hands shut, and the 
feet turned outwards. At first, the balancer may be assisted 
along the bar ; but he must gradually receive less and less aid, 
till at last the assistant only remains by his side. 

The pole may be mounted either from the ground or from the 
riding position on the beam. In the latter case, the balancer 
may raise the right foot, place it flat on the beam, with the heel 
near the upper part of the thigh, and rise on the point of the 
foot, carrying the weight of the bodv before him. (Plate XIX. 

% i.) 

In this case, the beam must not be touched with the hands ; 
the left leg must hang perpendicularly, with the toe towards the 
ground, and the arms be stretched forward. After keeping the 
balance for some minutes in this position, he must stretch the 
left leg out before him, place his heel on the middle of the beam, 
with the toe well turned outward, and transfer the weight of 
the body from the point of the right foot to the left heel — 
(Plate XIX. fig. 2). These steps he must perform alternately, 
till he reaches the end of the beam. 

TURNS IN BALANCING. 

When the balancer is able to walk firmly and in good position 
along the bar, and to spring off whenever he may lose his 
balance, he may attempt to turn round, first at the broad, then 
at the narrow end, and to return. He may next try to go 
backward. 

In accomphshing this, it is no longer the heel, but the tip of 
the toes, which receives the weight ; the leg which hangs being 
stretched backward, with the hip, knee, and heel forming a right 
angle, till the toes, by a transverse motion, are so placed on the 
middle of the beam, that the balancer can safely transfer to them 
the whole weight of the body. 



55 



BALANCING. 



To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed laterally, two 
balancers may pass each other thus : — They must hold one an- 
other fast by the arms, advance breast to breast, place each his 
right foot close forward to that of his comrade, across the bar 
(Plate XIX. fig. 3), and turn completely round each other, by 
each stepping with his left foot round the right one of the other, 
as in Plate XIX. fig. 4. 

To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed inferior ly, a 
large stone may be laid upon the bar, or a stick may be held 
before the balancer, about the height of the knee. (Plate XIX. 
fig. 5.) 

To pass over men placed upon a beam, the pupil or pupils 
who are astride in front he down on the beam, which they grasp 
firmly by passing their arms round it. The pupil a (fig. 1, Plate 
XX.) having to pass to the point on the beam marked b, places 
his hands on the waistband of his comrade c : he then leans 
upon his arms, and raises his body to pass forward over his 
comrade, opening his legs widely, so as not to touch him, till he 
places himself astride at c. He then extends his hands and 
arms for a second movement, places them at b. and leans the 
body well forward, as shown in fig. 2, Plate XX. Being thus 
placed, he makes the last movement, raises his body upon the 
arms to pass over his comrade's head without touching it, which 
is the chief rule of this exercise, and places himself astride upon 
the beam at b, moving his hands immediately, and extending 
them to rest at d. This movement being finished, he continues 
advancing astride, along the beam, over the others, if there be 
any ; raises himself to an upright position, and lies down in his 
turn on the beam. This last attitude requires some care, be- 
cause the head must incline either to the right or left of the 
beam, as shown in the plates, and the pupil must hold tight 
to the beam with the arms and thighs, which requires both skill 
and strength. 

The pupil may also pass as shown in fig. 3, Plate XX. This 
method is very easy for the person passing, and indeed more so 



TURNS IN BALANCING. 



59 



than any other ; but it is necessary that the pupil who is in the 
position b should have learnt to raise himself up on the beam, 
or know how to advance along it underneath, in a reversed 
position. 

It is impossible for any one who has not seen the carnivals of 
Venice, and other towns in Italy, to form an idea of all the 
difficulties that have been surmounted in the art of equihbrium. 
To acquire the art of carrying any body, the balancer may at 
first walk along the bar with his hands folded across his breast, 
instead of using them to balance himself; and he may after- 
wards carry bodies of various magnitudes. 

To this notice of the rules by which the art of Balancing may 
be best acquired, it will not be out of place to subjoin a slight 
outline of its importance to all who desire to arrive at excellence 
in any of the Manly Exercises. Motion — the source of them 
all — if not absolutely dependent for existence upon equihbrium, 
without it would be but the infancy of action — movement 
tottering, uncertain, powerless. The first effort of locomotion 
— the walk, without it, possesses neither force nor decision : in 
the same ratio that a higher degree of muscular exertion is de- 
manded, increases the value and importance of the art which 
teaches how best to apply the vital energies to its service. 
What a wise economy is to the social, this art is to the prrysical 
system : both serve to augment our resources, by instructing us 
so to husband them that the term " necessity" be not known to 
our vocabulary. 

While in every instance equilibrium adds greatly to physical 
power, in many it stands altogether in its stead. To the most 
casual observer of our usual sports it will be manifest that this 
is the case in Skating ; — the more attentive and competent will 
have little difficulty in tracing its effects in Leaping, Vaulting, 
Swimming, and through almost the whole catalogue. It is to 
the later writers on horsemanship that we are indebted for the 
knowledge of its vital service to the equestrian. The truth of 



60 



CARRYING WEIGHT. 



their theory is proved by the fact that, where formerly scarce a 
tithe of a hunting-field was found to ride to hounds, now 
nine-tenths are ordinarily to be seen in good places. 

Scouring along, 

In pleasing hurry and confusion toss'd, 
Happy the man, who with unrivall'd speed 
Can pass his fellows. 



CARRYING WEIGHT. 

The power of raising and carrying weight is of great import- 
ance in a general view. Many advantages will be derived from 
it ; for besides strengthening the locomotive muscles, upon 
which all our physical operations depend, it will fortify also all 
the system and all the organs. All persons, moreover, may 
find themselves under the necessity of raising and carrying a 
wounded or fainting person, and may be glad to have cultivated 
and acquired the power necessary to perform such an act. 

In accustoming young persons to carry burdens, they should 
be taught to support what is on the back first with one hand 
and then with the other : by these means the muscles are equally 
exercised on each side, and acquire an equal developement. 
These burdens, however, must not exceed their strength; and 
they should be taught not to carry on one side in preference, 
for fear of deforming the limbs. There are several modes of 
supporting weights, and of trying the amount of power pos- 
sessed for this kind of exercise. 

Fig. 1, Plate XXIII. represents one method. It consists in 
loading the shoulders with sacks full of articles whose weight 
is previously known. The position of the arms and hands is such 
that the pupil can support a great weight : but in this way he 



carrying weight. 



61 



can walk but very slowly ; and it is therefore, so far, disadvan- 
tageous. 

Fig. 2, in the same plate, supports a weight by means of a 
hod. This is filled with balls or stones, of which the weight is 
known. 

The form of the weight is of consequence. A soldier now 
carries with ease a knapsack full of articles, and additional 
weight above it, because the flat shape that has been lately 
adopted fits the body, and lies close to the back, as in fig. 3, 
and the centre of gravity is thus very little deranged. But if 
the knapsack were of the old shape, very projecting and very 
round, as in fig. 4, the soldier would be forced to incline his 
body forward, and would not be able to carry as great a weight, 
nor march as long a time, in consequence of fatigue. It is for 
this reason, among others, desirable to extend the knowledge of 
the most simple rules of mechanics, because these rules are 
serviceable in avoiding many dangers, and diminishing the 
fatigue and the efforts that vacillation in the movements pro- 
duces. We may make use of a hook to bear boxes or bags in 
addition, with the weights marked, and thus learn the carrier's 
strength. 

Milo, says history, first carried a calf immediately after its 
birth, and continued to do so every day till it had reached its 
full size. It was said by this means that he was able to carry 
even the ox itself, and afterwards throw it on the ground and 
kill it with his fist. 

Augustus the Second, King of Poland, carried a man upon 
his hand. 

A man named Roussel, a labourer in the environs of Lisle, 
who on a smaller scale (being but four feet ten inches in height), 
was formed exactly like the Farnese Hercules, raised on his 
shoulders a weight of eighteen hundred pounds. He cleared a 
circle six feet in height with very little spring and one hundred- 
weight in each hand. When seated on the ground, he rose up 
without aid, carrying two men on his arms. Equally astonishing 



THROWING THE DISCUS 



in the strength of his loins, he took up two hundred-weight 
leaning backwards over a chair. " I have seen this remarkable 
man," says Friedlander : " the whole of his family are very 
strong : his sister and brother are equally remarkable in this 
point/ 3 It is very striking to find in him the characteristic 
traits with which antiquity depicted the ideal of bodily strength. 

In the Encyclopaedia of Krumtz. vol. lxxii., we find instances 
of some men similar to Roussel, who lived at the commence- 
ment of the last century. A man named Eckenberg raised a 
cannon of two thousand five hunched pounds weight ; and two 
strong men were unable to take from him a stick that he held 
between his teeth. 

In number 446 of the Bibiiotheque Britannique, is to be 
found a report of some trials made by a Mr. Shulze, in his 
manufactory, of the strength of men of different heights. 
These trials show what influence an elevated stature has upon 
the vertical height to which a man can raise any weight. A 
short man is, in his turn, capable of employing more force in 
another direction. 



THROWING THE DISCUS. 

Among the Greeks, throwing the discus did not form part of 
the games till the eighteenth Olympiad. This exercise consisted 
in throwing, as far as possible, a mass of wood or stone, but 
more commonly of iron or copper, of a lenticular form. From 
the testimony of ancient authors, there was no mark or butt 
fixed, except the spot where the discus thrown by the strong- 
est of the discoboli alighted. Mercuriali has handed down to 
us three engravings, in which the discus is uotof the same shape. 
The first engraving represents four discoboli in the act of throw- 
ing with the right hand a discus which is as thick at the circum- 



THROWING THE DISCUS. 



63 



ference as at the centre, which has been bored. The second re- 
presents the statue of a discobolus holding a discus apparently of 
a spherical form, in the left hand. The third shows the arm of 
an athlete with a flat discus. The discus in the last two en- 
gravings now mentioned, covers the greater part of the front of 
the forearm ; and all that the ancients have written respecting 
this instrument, tends to show that it was of enormous size and 
weight. Homer tells us, that the athletes threw the discus 
either up into the air merely as a prelude to accustom their arms 
to it, or horizontally when they were striving for the prize. 

To perform this exercise properly, the thrower should not 
only balance the discus well on the right arm, (supposing it to 
be on that arm, as in Plate XXIV. fig. 1) ; but at the moment 
it leaves the hand, he should throw the whole of the right side 
forward, so that the impulse may be assisted by the weight of 
the whole body. — (Plate XXIV. fig. 2.) This exercise very 
much strengthens the body, and developes, in a particular man- 
ner, the limb by which the discus is thrown. It may be usefully 
employed in cases where it is desirable to remedy weakness in 
either of the arms ; and it is well calculated to bring up the 
power of the left arm to that of the right. The modern quoit 
differs from the ancient discus only in this, that the instrument 
so called is much smaller than the discus, that its use is a mere 
idle pastime, and that the object is always to throw it as close as 
possible to a fixed mark, requiring more skill than strength. 

It is evident that the discus may be heaved from above the 
shoulder as well as flung from below. — (See Plate XXIV. fig. 3.) 
No exercises can excel these for the acquirement of power. 
They ought to be much practised with both hands. A man of 
moderate strength will throw a pound weight of lead a distance 
of 140 feet, or thereabouts. 

Silex l£ . .126 feet. 

Ditto £ . .145 

Brick £ . .160 



CLIMBING. 



CLIMBING. 

Climbing is the art of transporting the body in any direction, 
by the aid, in general, both of the hands and feet. The climb- 
ing-stand consists of two strong poles, abont fifteen feet high, 
and from fifteen to twenty-five feet distant, which are firmly 
fixed in the ground, and support a beam strongly fastened to 
them. One pole is two inches and a half in diameter; the 
other, which serves as a mast, should be considerably thicker ; 
and both serve the purpose of climbing. To the beam are at- 
tached other implements of climbing : viz. a ladder, an inclined 
board, a mast, an inclined pole, a horizontal bar, a rope ladder, 
an upright, an inclined, and a level rope. — (Plate XXV.) 

KINDS OF CLIMBING. 

Climbing on fixed bodies should first be practised. 

The Ladder. 

Exercises on the ladder may be practised in the following 
ways : — 

1. By ascending 1 and descending' as I 3. Without using the hands, 
usual. I 4. Passing another on the front of 

2. With one hand, carrying some- | the ladder, or swinging to the back, 
thing in the other. I to let another pass. 

The Inclined Board. 
This should be rather rough, about two feet broad, and two 
inches thick. To climb it, it is necessary to seize both sides 
with the hands, and to place the feet flat in the middle, the in- 
clination of the board being diminished with the progress of 
the pupil. 

At first, it may form with the ground an angle of about 
thirty degrees ; and the climber should not go more than half- 
way up. This angle may gradually be augmented to a right 
angle, or the direction of the board may be made perpendicular. 
When the board is thus little or not at all inclined, the body 



KINDS OF CLIMBING. 



65 



must be much curved inward, and the legs thrust up, so that the 
higher one is nearly even with the hand. In descending, small 
and quick steps are necessary. 

The Upright Pole. 

The upright pole should be about two inches and a half in 
diameter, perfectly smooth and free from splinters. 

The position of the climber is shown in Plate XXV. fig. 1, 
where nothing touches the pole except the feet, legs, knees, and 
hands. He grasps as high as possible with both hands, raises 
himself by bending the body and drawing his legs up the pole, 
holds fast by them, extends the body, again grasps higher up 
with his hands, and continues the same use of the legs and 
arms. The descent is performed by sliding down with the legs, 
and scarcely touching with the hands, as in Plate XXV. fig. 2. 

The Mast. 

This is more difficult, as it cannot be grasped with the hands ; 
and it consequently should not be practised until the climber is 
expert in the previous exercises. The position of the legs is 
the same as for the pole ; but, instead of grasping the mast, the 
climber lays hold of his left arm with his right hand, or the re- 
verse, and clings to the mast with the whole body, as in Plate 
XXV. fig. 3. 

The Slant Pole. 

This must be at least three inches thick ; and as, in this ex- 
ercise, the hands bear more of the weight than in climbing the 
upright pole, it should not be attempted until expertness in the 
other is acquired. 

The Horizontal, or Slightly Inclined Bar. 
This may be about two inches wide at top, from ten to fifteen 
feet long, and supported by two posts, respectively six and seven 
feet high. The climber must grasp with both hands as high a 
part of the bar as he can reach, and, with arms extended, sup- 
port his own weight as long as possible. He must next endea- 
vour to bend the elbows so much, that one shoulder remains 

F 



66 



CLIMBING. 



close under the bar, as seen in Plate XXV. fig. 4. Or he may 
place both hands on the same side, and draw himself up so far 
as to see over it, keeping the legs and feet close and extended. 

He may then hang with his hands fixed on both sides, near 
to each other, having the elbows much bent, the upper parts of 
the arms close to the body, and one shoulder close under the 
bar ; may lower the head backwards, and may, at the same time, 
raise the feet to touch each other over the bar. — (Plate XXV. 
fig, 5.) In the last position, he may move the hands one before 
the other, forward or backward, and may either slide the feet 
along the bar, or alternately change them like the hands, and 
retain a similar hold. 

Hanging also by the hands alone, as in Plate XXY. fig. 6, he 
moves them either forward or backward, keeping the arms firm, 
and the feet close and extended. Or he may place himself in 
front of the bar, hanging by both hands, and move laterally. 
Being likewise in front of the bar, with his hands resting upon 
it, as in Plate XXV. fig. 7 S he may move along the bar either to 
the right or left. In the position of Plate XXV, fig. 5, the 
climber may endeavour to sit upon the bar, for instance, on the 
right side, by taking hold with the right knee-joint, grasping 
firmly with the right hand, and bringing the left armpit over 
the bar. The riding position is thus easily obtained. From the 
riding position, he may, by supporting himself with one thigh, 
turn towards the front of the bar, allowing the leg of the other 
side to hang down ; and he may then very easily move along the 
bar sideways, by raising his body with his hands placed laterally 
on the bar. 

The Rope Ladder. 

This should have several rundles to spread it out, and ought, 
in all respects, to be so constructed, as not to twist and en- 
tangle. The only difficulty here is that, as it hangs perpendicu- 
larly, and is flexible, its steps are liable to be pushed forward, 
and in that case, the body is thrown into an oblique position, 
and the whole weight falls on the hands. To prevent this, the 
climber must keep the body stretched out and upright. — (Plate 
XXV. fig. 8.) 



THE OHLIftUE ROPE. 



67 



The Upright Rope. 

In this exercise, the securing the rope may be effected in 
various ways. In the first method, shown m Plate XXV. 
fig. 9, the hands and feet alone are employed. The feet are 
crossed ; the rope passes between them, and is held fast by 
tneir pressure; the hands then grasp higher; the feet are 
drawn up ; they are again applied to the rope ; and the 
same process is repeated. In the second, which is the sailor's 
method, shown at Plate XXV. fig. 10, the rope passes from the 
hands, generally along the right thigh, just above the knee ; 
winds round the inside of the thigh, under the knee-joint, over 
the outside of the leg, and across the instep, whence it hangs 
loose ; and the climber, by treading with the left foot upon that 
part of the rope where it crosses the right one, is firmly sup- 
ported. This mode of climbing requires the right leg and foot 
to be so managed that the rope keeps its proper winding when- 
ever it is quitted by the left foot. In descending, to prevent 
injury, the hands must be lowered alternately. 

To rest upon the upright rope, shown in Plate XXV. fig. 1.1, 
the climber must swing the right foot round the rope, so as to 
wind it three or four times round the leg ; must turn it, by 
means of the left foot, once or twice round the right one, of 
which the toes are to be bent upwards ; and must tread firmly 
with the left foot upon the last winding. Or, to obtain a more 
perfect rest he may lower his hands along the rope, as in Figure 
11, hold with the right hand, stoop, grasp with the left the 
part of the rope below the feet, raise it and himself again, and 
wind it round his shoulders, &c, until he is firmly supported. 

The Oblique Rope. 

The climber must fix himself to the rope, as in Plate XXV. 
fig. 12, and advance the hands along it, as already directed. 
The feet may move along the rope alternately; or one leg, 
hanging over the rope, may slide along it ; or, which is best, 

F 2 



ffi 



CLIMBING. 



the sole of one foot may be laid upon the rope, and the other 
leg across its instep, so that the friction is not felt. 

The Level Rope. 

This may have its ends fastened to posts of equal heights ; 
and the same exercises may be performed upon it. 

Climbing Trees. 

In attempting this exercise, the kind of the wood and strength 
of the branches must be considered. Summer is the best time 
for practising it, as withered branches are then most easily 
discerned ; and even then it is best to climb low trees, until 
some experience is acquired. As the surface of branches is 
smooth, or moist and slippery, the hands must never for a 
moment be relaxed. 






SKATING. 

Skating is the art of balancing the body, while, by the im- 
pulse of each foot alternately, it moves rapidly upon the ice. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SKATE. 

The wood of the skate should be slightly hollowed, so as to 
adapt it to the ball of the foot ; and, as the heel of the boot 
must be thick enough to admit the peg, it may be well to lower 
the wood of the skate corresponding to the heel, so as to permit 
the foot to regain that degree of horizontal position which it 
would otherwise lose by the height of the heel; for the more of 
the foot that is in contact with the skate, the more firmly will 
these be attached. As the tread of the skate should correspond, 
as nearly as possible^ with that of the foot, the wood should be 



70 



SKATING. 



of tlje same length as the boot or shoe ; the irons of good steel, 
and well secured in the wood. 

These should pass beyond the screw at the heel, nearly as far 
as the wood itself; but the bow of the iron should not project 
much beyond the tread. 

If the skate project much beyond the wood, the whole foot, 
and more especially its hind part, must be raised considerably 
from the ice when the front or bow of the skate is brought to 
bear upon it ; and, as the skater depends upon this part for the 
power of his stroke, it is evident that that must be greatly dimi- 
nished by the general distance of the foot from the ice. In short, 
if the skate be too long, the stroke will be feeble, and the back 
of the leg painfully cramped : if it be too short, the footing will 
be proportionally unsteady and tottering. 

As the position of the person in the act of skating is never 
vertical, and is sometimes very much inclined, and as consider- 
able exertion of the muscles of the leg is requisite to keep the 
ankle stiff, this ought to be relieved by the lowness of the skates. 
Seeing, then, that the closer the foot is to the ice, the less is 
the strain on the ankle, it is clear that the foot ought to be 
brought as near to the ice as possible, without danger of bring- 
ing the sole of the shoe in contact with it, while traversing on 
the edge of the skate. The best height is about three-quarters 
of an inch, and the iron about a quarter of an inch thick. 

The grooved or fluted skate, if ever useful, is of service only 
to boys, or very light persons, whose weight is not sufficient to 
catch the ice in a hard frost. It certainly should never be used 
by a person who is heavier than a boy of thirteen or fourteen 
years of age usually is, because the sharp edge too easily cuts 
into the ice, and prevents figuring. Fluted skates, indeed, are 
even dangerous : for the snow or ice cuttings are apt to collect 
and consolidate in the grooves, till the skater is raised from the 
edge of his skate, and thrown. 

In the general inclination of the foot in skating, no edge can 
have greater power than that of rectangular shape : the ten- 
dency of its action is downwards, cutting through rather than 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE SKATE. 



sliding on the surface; and greater hold than this is unnecessary. 
The irons of skates should be kept well and sharply ground. 
This ought to be done across the stone, so as to give the bottom 
of the skate so slight a concavity as to be imperceptible, which 
insures an edge whose angle is not greater than right. Care 
must be taken that one edge is not higher than the other ; so 
that, when the skate is placed upon an even surface, it may 
stand quite perpendicularly. The wear of the iron not being 
great with a beginner, one grinding will generally last him 
through an ordinary winter's skating on clean ice. 

The bottom of the iron should be a little curved ; for, if per- 
fectly straight, it would be capable of describing only a straight 
line, whereas the skater's progress must be circular, because, in 
order to bring the edge to bear, the body must be inclined, and 
inclination can be preserved only in circular motion. This curve 
of the iron should be part of a circle, whose radius is about two 
feet. That shape enables the skater to turn his toe or heel out- 
wards or inwards w T ith facility. 

A screw would have a firmer hold than a mere peg in the hole 
of the boot ; but, as it is less easily removed, skaters generally 
prefer the peg. The skater should be careful not to bore a 
larger hole in the heel than is sufficient to admit the peg. The 
more simple the fastenings of the skate the better. The two 
straps — namely, the cross strap over the toe, and the heel strap — 
cannot be improved, unless perhaps by passing one strap through 
the three bores, and so making it serve for both. 




Before going on the ice, the young skater must learn to tie 
on the skates, and may also learn to walk with them easily in a 
room, balancing alternately on each foot. 



£2 



SKATING. 



DRESS OF THE SKATER. 

A skater's dress should be as close and unincumbered as 
possible. Large skirts get entangled with his own limbs, or 
those of the persons who pass near him ; and all fulness of 
dress is exposed to the wind. Loose trousers, frocks, and more 
especially great-coats, must be avoided ; and indeed, by wearing 
additional under-clothing, they can always be dispensed with. 

As the exercise of skating produces perspiration, flannel next 
the chest, shoulders, and loins, is necessary to avoid the evils 
produced by sudden chills in cold weather. The best dress is 
what is called a dress-coat, buttoned, tight pantaloons, and 
laced boots (having the heel no higher than is necessary for the 
peg), which hold the foot tightly and steadily in its place, as 
well as give the best support to the ankle ; for it is of no use to 
draw the straps of the skate hard, if the boot or shoe be loose. 

PRELIMINARY AND GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

Either very rough or very smooth ice should be avoided. The 
person who for the first time attempts to skate, must not trust 
to a stick. He may make a friend's hand his support, if he 
require one ; but that should be soon relinquished, in order to 
balance himself. He will probably scramble about for half an 
hour or so, till he begins to find out where the edge of his 
skate is. 

The beginner must be fearless, but not violent ; nor even in 
a hurry. He should not let his feet get far apart, and keep his 
heels still nearer together. He must keep the ankle of the foot 
on the ice quite firm ; not attempting to gain the edge of the 
skate by bending it, because the right mode of getting to either 
edge is by the inclination of the whole body in the direction 
required ; and this inclination should be made fearlessly and 
decisively. 

The leg which is on the ice should be kept perfectly straight ; 
for, though the knee must be somewhat bent at the time of 



THE ORDINARY RUN. 



73 



striking, it must be straightened as quickly as possible without 
any jerk. The leg which is off the ice should also be kept 
straight, though not stiff, having an easy but slight play, the 
toe pointing downwards, and the heel within from six to twelve 
inches of the other. 

The learner must not look down at the ice, nor at his feet, to 
see how they perform. He may at first incline his body a little 
forward, for safety, but hold his head up, and see where he 
goes, his person erect, and his face rather elevated than other- 
wise. 

When once off, he must bring both feet up together, and 
strike again, as soon as he finds himself steady enough, rarely 
allowing both feet to be on the ice together. The position of 
the arms should be easy and varied ; one being always more 
raised than the other, this elevation being alternate, and the 
change corresponding with that of the legs ; that is, the right 
arm being raised as the right leg is put down, and vice versa, 
so that the arm and leg of the same side may not be raised to- 
gether. 

The face must be always turned in the direction of the line 
intended to be described. Hence, in backward skating, the 
head will be inclined much over the shoulder; in forward 
skating, but slightly. All sudden and violent action must be 
avoided. Stopping may be caused by slightly bending the 
knees, drawing the feet together, inclining the body forward, 
and pressing on the heels. It may also be caused by turning 
short to the right or left, the foot on the side to which we turn 
being rather more advanced, and supporting part of the weight. 

THE ORDINARY RUN, OR INSIDE EDGE FORWARD. 

The first attempt of the beginner is to walk, and this walk 
shortly becomes a sliding gait, done entirely on the inside edge 
of the skate. 

The first impulse is to be gained by pressing the inside edge 
of one skate against the ice, and advancing with the opposite 
foot. To effect this, the beginner must bring the feet nearly 



74 



SKATING. 



together, turn the left somewhat out, place the right a little in 
advance and at right angles with it, lean forward with the right 
shoulder, and at the same time move the right foot onwards, 
and press sharply, or strike the ice with the inside edge of the 
left skate, — care being taken instantly to throw the weight on 
the right foot. (Plate XXI. fig. 1.) While thus in motion, 
the skater must bring up the left foot nearly to a level with 
the other, and may for the present proceed a short way on both 
feet. 

He must next place the left foot in advance in its turn, bring 
the left shoulder forward, inclining to that side, strike from the 
inside edge of the right skate, and proceed as before. 

Finally, this motion has only to be repeated on each foot 
alternately, gradually keeping the foot from which he struck 
longer off the ice, till he has gained sufficient command of 
himself to keep it off altogether, and is able to strike directly 
from one to the other, without at any time having them both on 
the ice together. Having practised this till he has gained some 
degree of firmness and power, and a command of his balance, 
he may proceed to 

THE FORWARD ROLL, OR OUTSIDE EDGE. 

This is commonly reckoned the first step to figure skating, as, 
when it is once effected, the rest follows with ease. The im- 
pulse is gained in the same manner as for the ordinary run ; 
but, to get on the outside edge of the right foot, the moment 
that foot is in motion, the skater must advance the left 
shoulder, throw the right arm back, look over the right 
shoulder, and incline the whole person boldly and decisively on 
that side, keeping the left foot suspended behind. (Plate XXI. 
fig. 2.) 

As he proceeds, he must bring the left foot past the inside of 
the right, with a slight jerk, which produces an opposing balance 
of the body ; the right foot must quickly press, first on the 
outside of the heel, then on the inside, or its toe ; the left foot 
must be placed down in front, before it is removed more than 



THE CROSS ROLL. 



about eight or ten inches from the other foot ; and, by striking 
outside to the left, giving at the same moment a strong push 
with the inside of the right toe, the skater passes from right to 
left, inclining to the left side, in the same manner as he did to 
the right. He then continues to change from left to right, and 
from right to left, in the same manner. At first he should not 
remain long upon one leg, nor scruple occasionally to put the 
other down to assist ; and throughout he must keep himself 
erect, leaning most on the heel. 

The Dutch travelling roll is done on the outside edge for- 
ward, in the manner just represented, except that there is 
described a small segment of a very large circle, thus : 




diverging from the straight line no more than is requisite to 
keep the skate on its ec|ge. 

The cross roll or figure 8 is also done on the outside edge 
forward. This is only the completion of the circle on the out- 
side edge ; and it is performed by crossing the legs, and striking 
from the outside instead of the inside edge. In order to do 
this, as the skater draws to the close of the stroke on his right 
leg, he must throw the left quite across it, which will cause him 
to press hard on the outside of the right skate, from which he 
must immediately strike, at the same time throwing back the 
left arm, and looking over the left shoulder, to bring him well 
upon the outside of that skate. By completing the circle in 
this manner on each leg, the 8 is formed : 




each circle being small, complete, and well-formed, before the 
foot is changed. 



76 



SKATING. 



The Mercury figure is merely the outside and inside forward 
succeeding each other on the same leg alternately, by which a 
serpentine line is described, thus : 



Outside. Inside. Outs?de. 




This is skated with the force and rapidity gained by a run. 
When the run is complete, and the skater on the outside edge, 
his person becomes quiescent, in the attitude of Mercury, hav- 
ing the right arm advanced and much raised, the face turned 
over the right shoulder, and the left foot off the ice, a short 
distance behind the other, turned out and pointed. 

FIGURE OF THREE, OR INSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS. 

This figure is formed by turning from the outside edge for- 
ward to the inside edge backward on the same foot. The head 
of the 3 is formed like the half circle, on the heel of the out- 
side edge; but when the half circle is complete, the skater 
leans suddenly forward, and rests on the same toe inside, and a 
backward motion, making the tail of the 3, is the consequence. 
The figure described by the right leg should be nearly in the 
form of No. 1 ; and on the left leg should be reversed, and 
resemble No. 2. 



1. 2 




At first, the skater should not throw himself quite so hard as 
hitherto on the outside forward, in order that he may be able 
the more easily to change to the inside back. He may also be 
for some time contented with much less than a semicircle be- 
fore he turns. Having done this, and brought the left leg 
nearly up to the other, he must not pass it on in advance, as 
he would to complete a circle, but throw it gently off sidewise, 



OUTSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS. 



77 



at the same moment turning the face from the right to the left 
shoulder, and giving the whole person a slight inclination to the 
left side. These motions throw the skater upon the inside of 
his skate ; but as the first impulse should still retain most of its 
force, he continues to move on the inside back, in a direction 
so little different, that his first impulse loses little by the change. 
(Plate XXII. fig. I.) 

If unable to change the edge by this method, the skater may 
assist himself by slightly and gently swinging the arm and leg 
outward, so as to incline the person to a rotatory motion. This 
swing, however, must be corrected as soon as the object is 
attained ; and it must generally be observed that the change 
from edge to edge is to be effected merely by the inclination of 
the body, not by swinging. 

When the skater is able to join the ends of the 3, so as to 
form one side of a circle, then, by striking off in the same man- 
ner, and completing another 3, with the left leg, the combina- 
tion of the two 3's will form an 8. In the first attempts, the 3 
should not be made above two feet long, which he will acquire 
the power of doing almost imperceptibly. He may then 
gradually extend the size as he advances in the art. 

Though, in this section, backward skating is spoken of, the 
term refers to the skate only, which in such case moves heel 
foremost, but the person of the skater moves sidewise, the face 
being always turned in the direction in which he is proceeding. 

OUTSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS. 

Here the skater, having completed the 3, and being carried 
on by the first impulse, still continues his progress in the same 
direction, but on the other foot, putting it down on its outside 
edge, and continuing to go backwards slowly. 

To accomplish this, the skater, after making the 3, and 
placing the outside edge of his left foot on the ice, should at 
once turn his face over the right shoulder, raise his right foot 
from the ice, and throw back his right arm and shoulder. (Plate 
XXII. fig. 2.) If, for awhile, he is unable readily to raise that foot 



7a 



SKATING, 



which has made the 3, and leave himself on the outside of the other 
skate, he may keep both down for some distance, putting himself, 
however, in attitude of being on the outside only of one skate, 
and gradually lifting the other off the ice as he acquires ability. 

Wher> finishing any figure, this use of both feet backward 
has great convenience and beauty. 

Before venturing on the outside backward, the skater ought 
to take care that the ice is clear of stones, reeds, &c, and also 
be certain of the good quality of his irons. When going with 
great force backward, the course may be deflected, so as to stop 
by degrees ; and, when moving slowly, the suspended foot may 
be put down in a cross direction to the path. 

Such are the four movements of which alone the skate is 
capable : namely, the inside edge forward ; the outside for - 
ward ; the inside back ; and the outside back ; in which has 
been seen how the impulse for the first two is gained, and how 
the third flows from the second, and the fourth from the third. 
By the combination of these elements of skating, and the varia- 
tions with which they succeed each other, are formed all the 
evolutions in this art. 

The Double Three is that combination in which the skates 
are brought from the inside back of the first three, to the 
outside forward of the second. Here the skater, after having 
completed one 3, and being on the inside back, must bring the 
whole of the left side forward, particularly the leg, till it is 
thrown almost across the right, on which he is skating. This 
action brings him once more to the outside forward, from which 
he again turns to the inside back. While he is still in motion 
on the second inside back of the right leg, he must strike on 
the left, and repeat the same on that. 

It is at first enough to do two 3's perfectly and smoothly. Their 
number from one impulse may be increased as the skater gains 
steadiness and skill ; the art of accomplishing this being to 
touch as lightly as possible on each side of the skate successively, 
so that the first impulse may be preserved and made the most of. 
The Back Roll is a means of moving from one foot to another. 



THE BACK ROLL. 



79 



Suppose the skater to have put himself on the outside edge 
back of the left leg, with considerable impulse, by means of 
the 3 performed on the right, — not bearing hard on the edge, for 
the object is to change it, and take up the motion on the right 
foot, — this is effected by throwing the left arm and shoulder 
back, and turning the face to look over them ; when, having 
brought the inside of his left skate to bear on the ice, he must 
immediately strike from it to the outside back of the other, by 
pressing it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. Having 
thus been brought to the backward roll on the right foot, he 
repeats the same with it. 

The Back Cross Roll is done by changing the balance of the 
body, to move from one foot to the other, in the same manner 
as for the back roll. The stroke is from the outside instead of 
the inside edge of the skate ; the edge on which he is skating 
not being changed, but the right foot, which is off the ice, being 
crossed at the back of the left, and put down, and the stroke 
taken at the same moment, from the outside edge of the left 
skate, at the toe. As in the back roll of both forms, the strokes 
are but feeble, the skater may, from time to time, renew his 
impulse as he finds occasion, by commencing anew with the 3. 

The large outside backward roll is attained by a run, when 
the skater, having gained all the impulse he can, strikes on the 
outside forward of the right leg, turns the 3, and immediately 
put down the left on the outside back. He then, without fur- 
ther effort, flies rapidly over the ice ; the left arm being raised, 
the head turned over the right shoulder, and the right foot 
turned out and pointed. 

It must be evident, that the elements described may be com- 
bined and varied infinitely. Hence waltz and quadrille skating, 
&c, which may be described as combinations of 3's, outside 
backwards, &c. These are left to the judgment of the skater, 
and his skill in the art. 

In the North it is common to travel in skates on the gulfs 
and rivers ; and, with a favourable wind, they go faster than 
vessels. It is a kind of flight, for they only touch the ground 



80 



TREATMENT OF DROWNED PERSONS. 



in a very slight thin line. As to feats in skating, we are told, 
that the Frieslander, who is generally a skilful skater, often 
goes for a long time at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. In 
1801, two young women, going thirty miles in two horns, won 
the prize in a skating race at Groningen. In 1821, a Lincoln- 
shire man, for a wager of 100 guineas, skated one mile within 
two seconds of three minutes. 

DANGERS IN SKATING. 

If the chest be irritable, it is neither salutary nor easy to 
skate against the wind. In countries where these exercises are 
general, inflammations of the chest are very common in winter. 
Skating sometimes exposes to much danger. If the skater rind 
that he cannot get away from rotten ice, he must crawl over it 
on his hands and knees, in order to reduce his weight on the 
supporting points. If he fall on it at length, he must roll away 
frojn it towards ice more firm. If he fall into a hole, he must 
extend his arms horizontally over the edges of the imbroken 
ice, and only tread water, till a ladder or a plank is pushed 
towards him, or a rope is thrown for his hold. 



TREATMENT RECOMMENDED IN THE CASE OF DROWNED PERSONS. 

Cautions. — 1. Lose no time. 2. Avoid all rough usage. 3. Never hold the 
body up by the feet. 4. Nor roll the body on casks. 5. Nor rub the body 
with salt or spirits. 6. Nor inject tobacco-smoke or infusion of tobacco. 

Restorative means if apparently drowned. — Send quickly for 
medical assistance : but do not delay the following' means. 

I. Convey the body carefully, with the head and shoulders supported in a 
raised position, to the nearest house. 

II. Strip the body, and rub it dry j then wrap it in hot blankets, and place 
it in a warm bed in a warni chamber. 

III. Wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils. 

IV. In order to restore the natural warmth of the body : 

1. Move a heated covered warming-pan over the back and spine. 

2. Put bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit of the 
stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. 



TREATMENT OF DROWNED PERSONS. 



81 



3. Foment the body with hot flannels ; but, if possible, 

4. Immerse the body in a warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear without 
pain, as this is prefeiable to the other means for restoring warmth. 

5. Rub the body briskly with the hand ; do not, however, suspend the use 
of the other means at the same time. 

V. In order to restore breathing, introduce the pipe of a common bellows 
(where the apparatus of the Society is not at hand) into one nostril, carefully 
ciosing the other and the mouth : at the same time draw downwards and 
push gently backwards the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free 
admission of air : blow the bellows gently in order to inflate the lungs, till the 
breast be a little raised : the mouth and nostrils should then be set free, and 
a moderate pressure should be made with the hand upon the chest. Repeat 
this process till life appears. 

VI. Electricity should be employed early by a medical assistant. 

VII. Inject into the stomach, by means of an elastic tube and syringe, half 
a pint of warm brandy and water, or wine and water. 

VIII. Apply sal-volatile or hartshorn to the nostrils. 

If apparently dead from intense cold. — Rub the body with snow, 
ice, or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees ; and after some time, 
if necessary, employ the means recommended for the drowned. In these 
accidents, it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early. 




SWIMMING. 

Swimming, considered with regard to the movements that 
it requires, is useful in promoting great muscular strength; 
but the good effects are not solely the result of the exercise 
that the muscles receive, hut partly of the medium in which 
the body is moved. Both the considerable increase of general 
force, and the tranquillizing of the nervous system produced 
by swimming, arise chiefly from this, that the movements, in 
consequence of the cold and dense medium in which they take 
place, occasion no loss.* It is easy to conceive of what utility 
swimming must be, where the very high state of the atmo- 

* The expression " loss" here, is used as the result produced by increased 
evaporation from the pores, consequent upon violent bodily exertion. 



PREPARATORY INSTRUCTIONS. 



S3 



spheric temperature requires inactivity in consequence of the 
excessive loss caused by the slightest movement. It then 
oecomes an exceedingly valuable resource, the only one, in- 
deed, bv which muscular weakness can be remedied, and the 
energy of the vital functions maintained. We must therefore 
regard swimming as one of the most beneficial exercises that 
can be taken in summer. 

The ancients, particularly the Athenians, regarded swimming 
as indispensable ; and when they wished to designate a man 
who was fit for nothing, they used to say 3 " he cannot even 
swim/' or "he can neither read nor swim." At many seaports, 
the art of swimming is almost indispensable ; and the sailors 5 
children are as familiar with the water as with the air. Copen- 
hagen is perhaps the only place where sailors are trained by 
rules of art ; and there, this exercise is more general and in 
greater perfection than elsewhere. It may here be observed, 
that it is not fear alone that prevents a man swimming. Swim- 
ming is an art that must be learnt ; and fear is only an obstacle 
to the learning. 

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTIONS AS TO ATTITUDE AND ACTION 
IN SWIMMING. 

As it is on the movements of the limbs, and a certain attitude 
of the body, that the power of swimming depends, its first 
principles may evidently be acquired out of the water. 

Attitude. 

The head must be drawn back, and the chin elevated, the 
breast projected, and the back hollowed and kept steady. (Plate 
XXVI. figs. 1 and 2.) The head can scarcely be thrown too 
much back, or the back too much hollowed. Those who da 
otherwise, swim with their feet near the surface of the water, 
instead of having them two or three feet deep. 

Action of the Hands. 
In the proper position of the hands, the fingers must be kept 
close, with the thumbs bv the edge of the fore-fingers; and the 

g2 



84 



SWIMMING. 



hands made concave on the inside, though not so much as t( 
diminish their size and power in swimming. The hands, thus 
formed, should be placed just before the breast, the wrist 
touching it, and the fingers pointing forward. (Plate XXVII. 

i.) 

The first elevation is formed by raising the ends of the 
fingers three or four inches higher than the rest of the hands. 
The second, by raising the outer edge of the hand two or three 
inches higher than the inner edge. 

The formation of the hands, their first position, and their 
two modes of elevation, being clearly understood, the for- 
ward stroke is next made, by projecting them in that direc- 
tion to their utmost extent, employing therein their first eleva- 
tion, in order to produce buoyancy, but taking care the fingers 
do not break the surface of the water. (Plate XXVII. fig. 2.) 
In the outward stroke of the hands, the second elevation 
must be employed ; and, in it, they must sweep downward and 
outward as low as, but at a distance from, the hips, both laterally 
and anteriorly. (Plate XXVIII. figs. 1 and 2.) 

The retraction of the hands is effected by bringing the arms 
closer to the sides, bending the elbow joints upwards and the 
wrists downwards, so that the hands hang down, while the 
arms are raising them to the first position, the action of the 
hands being gentle and easy. In the three movements just 
described, one arm may be exercised at a time, until each is 
accustomed to the action. 

Action of the Feet. 

In drawing up the legs, the knees must be inclined inward, 
and the soles of the feet outward. (Plate XXIX. fig. 1.) The 
throwing out the feet should be to the extent of the legs, 
as widely from each other as possible. (Plate XXIX. fig. 2.) 
The bringing down the legs must be done briskly, until 
they come close together. In drawing up the legs, there is 
a loss of power ; in throwing out the legs, there is a gain 



TIME AND PLACE OF SWIMMING. 



85 



equal to that loss ; and in bringing down the legs, there is an 
evident gain. 

The arms and legs should act alternately ; the arms descend- 
ing while the legs are rising — (Plate XXX. fig. 1); and, op- 
positely, the arms rising while the legs are descending. (Plate 
XXX. fig. 2.) Thus the action of both is unceasingly inter- 
changed; and, until great facility in this interchange is effected, 
no one can swim smoothly, or keep the body in one con- 
tinued progressive motion. In practising the action of the 
legs, one hand may rest on the top of a chair, while the 
opposite leg is exercised. When both the arms and the legs 
are separately accustomed to the action, the arm and leg of 
the same side may be exercised together. 

PLACE AND TIME OF SWIMMING. 
Place. 

Of all places for swimming, the sea is the best; running 
waters next; and ponds the worst. In these a particular 
spot should be chosen, where there is not much stream, and 
which is known to be safe. 

The swimmer should make sure that the bottom is not out 
3f his depth; and, on this subject, he cannot be too cautious 
when he has no one with him who knows the place. If 
capable of diving, he should ascertain if the water be suffi- 
ciently deep for that purpose, otherwise, he may injure himself 
against the bottom. The bottom should be of gravel, or 
smooth stones, and free from holes, so that he may be in 
no danger of sinking in the mud or wounding the feet. Of 
weeds he must beware; for if his feet get entangled among 
; them, no aid, even if near, may be able to extricate him. 

Time. 

The best season of the year for swimming is during the 
months of May, June, July, and August. Morning before 
breakfast — that is to say, from seven till eight o'clock — is the 



86 



SWIMMING. 



time. In the evening, the hair is not perfectly dried, and coryza 
is sometimes the consequence. Bathing during rain is bad, for 
it chills the water, and, by wetting the clothes, endangers catch- 
ing cold. Tn practising swimming during those horns of the 
day when the heat of the sun is felt most sensibly, if the hair 
be thick, it should be kept constantly wet ; if the head be bald, 
it must be covered with a handkerchief, and frequently wetted. 

It is advisable not to enter the water before digestion is 
finished. The danger in this case arises less from the violent 
movements which generally disorder digestion, than from the 
impression produced by the medium in which these movements 
are executed. It is not less so when very hot, or quite cold. 
It is wrong to enter the water in a perspiration, however trifling 
it may be. After violent exercises, it is better to wash and em- 
ploy friction than to bathe. Persons of plethoric temperament, 
who are subject to periodical evacuations, such as hemorrhoids, 
or even to cutaneous eruptions, will do well to abstain from 
swimming during the appearance of these affections. 

Dress. 

Every swimmer should use short drawers, and might, in par- 
ticular places, use canvass slippers. It is even of great import- 
ance to be able to swirri in jacket and trousers. 

Aids. 

The aid of the hand is much preferable to corks or bladders, 
because it can be withdrawn gradually and insensibly. With 
this view, a grown-up person may take the learner in his arms, 
carry him into the water breast high, place him nearly flat upon 
it, support him by one hand under the breast, and direct him as 
to attitude and action. If the support of the hand be very gra- 
dually withdrawn, the swimmer will, in the course of the first 
ten days, find it quite unnecessary. When the aid of the hand 
cannot be obtained, inflated membranes or corks may be em- 
ployed. The only argument for their use is, that attitude and 
action may be perfected while the body is thus supported ; and 



CRAMP. 



87 



that, with some contrivance, they also may gradually be laid 
aside, though by no means so easily as the hand. 

The best mode of employing corks is to choose a piece about 
a foot long, and six or seven inches broad; to fasten a band 
across the middle of it ; to place it on the back, so that the 
upper end may come between the shoulder-blades, where the 
edge may be rounded; and to tie the band over the breast. 
Over this, several other pieces of cork, each smaller than the 
preceding, may be fixed, so that, as the swimmer improves, he 
may leave them off one by one. Even with all these aids, the 
young swimmer should never venture out of his depth, if he 
cannot swim without them. 

Cramp. 

As to cramp, those chiefly are liable to it who plunge into the 
water when they are heated, who remain in it till they are be- 
numbed with cold, or who exhaust themselves by violent exer- 
cise. Persons subject to this affection must be careful with 
regard to the selection of the place where they bathe, if they 
are not sufficiently skilful in swimming to vary their attitudes, 
and dispense instantly with the use of the limb attacked by 
cramp. Even when this does occur, the skilful swimmer knows 
how to reach the shore by the aid of the limbs which are un- 
affected, while the uninstructed one is liable to be drowned. 

If attacked in this way in the leg, the swimmer must strike 
out the limb with all his strength, thrusting the heel downward 
and drawing the toes upward, notwithstanding the momentary 
pain it may occasion ; or he may immediately turn flat on his 
back, and jerk out the affected limb in the air, taking care not 
to elevate it so high as greatly to disturb the balance of the 
body. If this does not succeed, he must paddle ashore with his 
hands, or keep himself afloat by their aid, until assistance reach 
him. Should he even be unable to float on his back, he must 
put himself in the upright position, and keep his head above the 
surface by merely striking the water downward with his hands 
at the hips, without any assistance from the legs. 



SWIMMING. 



PROCEDURE WHEN IN THE WATER, AND USUAL MODE OF 
FRONT SWIMMING. 

Entering the Water. 
Instructors should never force young swimmers reluctantly to 
leap into the water. It would be advisable for delicate persons, 
especially when they intend to plunge in, to put a little cotton 
steeped in oil, and afterwards pressed, in then ears, before 
entering the water. This precaution will prevent irritation of 
the organ of hearing. In entering, the head should be wetted 
first, either by plunging in head foremost, or by pouring water 
on it, in order to prevent the pressure of the water driving up 
the blood into it too quickly, and increasing congestion. The 
swimmer should next advance, by a clear shelving shore or 
bank, where he has ascertained the depth by plumbing or other- 
wise, till the water reaches his breast ; should turn towards the 
place of entrance ; and, having inflated his breast, lay it upon 
the water, suffering that to rise to his chin, the hps being closed. 

Buoyancy in the Water. 
The head alone is specifically heavier than salt water. Even 
the legs and arms are specifically lighter ; and the trunk is still 
more so. Thus the body cannot sink in salt water, even if the 
lungs were filled, except owing to the excessive specific gravity 
of the head. 

Not only the head, but the legs and arms, are specifically 
heavier than fresh water ; but still the hollowness of the trunk 
renders the body altogether too light to sink wholly under water, 
so that some part remains above until the lungs become filled. 
In general, when the human body is immersed, one-eleventh of 
its weight remains above the surface in fresh water, and one- 
tenth in salt water. 

In salt water, therefore, a person throwing himself on his 
back, and extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his 
mouth and nostrils free for breathing ; and, by a small motion 
of the hand, may prevent turning, if he perceive any tendency 



BUOYANCY IN THE WATER. 



89 



to it. In fresh water, a man cannot long continue in that situ- 
ation, except by the action of his hands : and if no such action 
be employed, the legs and lower part of the body will gradually 
sink into an upright position, the hollow of the breast keeping 
the head uppermost. If. however, in this position, the head be 
kept upright above the shoulders, as in standing on the ground, 
the immersion, owing to the weight of the part of the head out 
of the water, will reach above the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a 
little above the eyes. On the contrary, in the same position, if 
the head be leaned back, so that the face is turned upwards, the 
back part of the head has its weight supported by the water, and 
the face will rise an inch higher at every inspiration, and will 
sink as much at every expiration, but never so low that the water 
can come over the mouth. 

For all these reasons, though the impetus given by the fall of 
the bodv into water occasions its sinking to a depth proportioned 
to the force of the descent, its natural buoyancy soon impels it 
again to the surface, where, after a few oscillations up and down, 
it settles with the head free. 

Unfortunately, ignorant people stretch the arms out to grasp 
at anything or nothing, and thereby keep the head under; for 
the arms and head, together exceeding in weight one-tenth of 
the body, cannot remain above the surface at the same time. 
The buoyancy of the trunk, then and then only, occasions the 
head and shoulders to sink, the ridge of the bent back becoming 
the portion exposed; and, in this attitude, water is swallowed, 
by which the specific gravity is increased, and the body settles 
to the bottom. It is, therefore, most important to the safety of 
the inexperienced to be firmly convinced that the body naturally 
floats. 

To satisfy the beginner of the truth of this, Dr. Franklin ad- 
vises him to choose a place where clear water deepens gradually, 
to walk into it till it is up to his breast, to turn his face to the 
shore, and to throw an egg into the water between him and it — 
so deep that he cannot fetch it up but by chVing. To encourage 
him to take it up, he must reflect that his progress will be from 



90 



SWIMMING. 



deep to shallow water, and that at any time he may, by bringing 
his legs under him, and standing on the bottom, raise his head 
far above the water. He must then plunge under it, having his 
eyes open, before as well as after going under ; throw himself 
towards the egg, and endeavour, by the action of his hands and 
feet against the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In 
this attempt, he will find that the water brings him up against 
his inclination, that it is not so easy to sink as he imagined, and 
that he cannot, but by force, get down to the egg. Thus he feels 
the power of water to support him, and learns to confide in that 
power ; while his endeavours to overcome it, and reach the egg, 
teach him the manner of acting on the water with his feet and 
hands, as he afterwards must in swimming, in order to support 
his head higher above the water, or to go forward through it. 

If, then, any person, however unacquainted with swimming, 
will hold himself perfectly still and upright, as if standing with 
his head somewhat thrown back so as to rest on the surface, his 
face will remain above the water, and he will enjoy full freedom 
of breathing. To do this most effectually, the head must be so 
far thrown back that the chin is higher than the forehead, the 
breast inflated, the back quite hollow, and the hands and arms 
kept under water. If these directions be carefully observed, the 
face will float above the water, and the body will settle in a dia- 
gonal direction. (Plate XXXI. fig. 1.) 

In this case, the only difficulty is to preserve the balance of 
the body. This is secured, as described by Bernardi, by extend- 
ing the arms laterally under the surface of the water, with the 
legs separated, the one to the front and the other behind : thus 
presenting resistance to any tendency of the body to incline to 
either side, forward or backward. This posture may be pre- 
served any length of time. (Plate XXXI. fig. 2.) 

The Abbe Paul Moccia, who lived in Naples in 1760, per- 
ceived, at the age of fifty, that he could never entirely cover 
himself in the water. He weighed three hundred pounds (Italian 
weight), but being very fat, he lost at least thirty pounds in the 
water. Robertson had just made his experiments on the specific 



ATTITUDE — ACTION — RESPIRATION. 



n 



weight of man; and everybody was then occupied with the Abbe, 
who could walk in the water with nearly half his body out of it. 

Attitude and Action in the Water. 
The swimmer having, by all the preceding means, acquired 
confidence, may now practise the instructions already given on 
attitude and action in swimming : or he may first proceed with 
the system of Bernardi, which immediately follows. As the 
former have already been given in ample detail, there is nothing 
new here to be added respecting them, except that, while the 
attitude is correct, the limbs must be exercised calmly, and free 
from all hurry and trepidation, the breath being held, and the 
breast kept inflated, while a few strokes are made. In swim- 
ming in the usual way, there is, first, extension, flexion, abduc- 
tion and adduction of the members ; secondly, almost constant 
dilation of the chest, to diminish the mobility of the point of 
attachment of the muscles which are inserted in the elastic sides 
of this cavity, and to render the body specifically lighter ; thirdly, 
constant action of the muscles of the back part of the neck, to 
raise the head, which is relatively very heavy, and to allow the 
air free entrance to the lungs. 

Respiration in Swimming. 
If the breath is drawn at the moment when the swimmer 
strikes out with the legs, instead of when the body is elevated 
by the hands descending towards the hips, the head partially 
sinks, the face is driven against the water, and the mouth be- 
comes filled. If, on the contrary, the breath is drawn when the 
body is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips, when 
the progress of the body forward consequently ceases, when the 
face is no longer driven against the water, but is elevated above 
the surface, — then, not only cannot the water enter, but if the 
mouth were at other times even with, or partly under the sur- 
face, no water could enter it, as the air, at such times, driven 
outward between the lips, would effectually prevent it. The 
breath should accordingly be expired while the body, at the 
next stroke, is sent forward by the action of the legs. 



92 



SWIMMING. 



Coming out of the Water. 
Too much fatigue in the water weakens the strength and pre- 
sence of mind necessary to avoid accidents. A person who is 
fatigued, and remains there without motion, soon becomes weak 
and chilly. As soon as he feels fatigued, chill, or numbed, he 
should quit the water, and dry and dress himself as quickly as 
possible. Friction, previous to dressing, drives the blood over 
every part of the bodjr, creates an agreeable glow, and 
strengthens the joints and muscles. 

UPRIGHT SWIMMING. 
Bernard? s System. 

The principal reasons given by Bernardi for recommending the 
upright position in swimming are — its conformity to the ac- 
customed movement of the limbs ; the freedom it gives to the 
hands and arms, by which any impediment may be removed, or 
any offered aid readily laid hold of ; vision all around ; a much 
greater facility of breathing ; and lastly, that much less of the 
body is exposed to the risk of being laid hold of by persons 
struggling in the water. 

The less we alter our method of advancing in the water from 
what is habitual to us on shore, the more easy do we find a 
continued exercise of it. The most important consequence of 
this is, that, though a person swimming in an upright posture 
advances more slowly, he is able to continue his course much 
longer ; and certainly nothing can be more beneficial to a swim- 
mer than whatever tends to husband his strength, and to enable 
him to remain long in the water with safety. 

Bernardi's primary object is to enable the pupil to float in 
an upright posture, and to feel confidence in the buoyancy 
of his body. He accordingly supports the pupil under the 
shoulders until he floats tranquilly with the head and part of 
the neck above the surface, the arms being stretched out hori- 
zontally under water. From time to time, the supporting arm 
s removed, but again restored, so as never to suffer the head 



BERN ARDIS SYSTEM. 



93 



to sink, which would disturb the growing confidence, and give 
rise to efforts destructive of the success of the lesson. In this 
early stage, the unsteadiness of the body is the chief difficulty 
to be overcome. 

The head is the great regulator of our movements in water. 
Its smallest inclination to either side instantly operates on the 
whole body ; and, if not corrected, throws it into a horizontal 
posture. The pupil must, therefore, restore any disturbance of 
equilibrium by a cautious movement of the head alone in an 
opposite direction. This first lesson being familiarized by prac- 
tice, he is taught the use of the legs and arms for balancing the 
body in the water. One leg being stretched forward, the other 
backward, and the arms laterally, he soon finds himself steadily 
sustained, and independent of further aid in floating. 

When these first steps have been gained, the sweeping semi- 
circular motion of the arms is shown. This is practised slowly, 
without motion forwards, until attained with precision. After 
this, a slight inclination of the body from the upright position 
occasions its advancing. The motion of striking with the legs 
is added in the same measured manner ; so that the pupil is not 
perplexed by the acquisition of more than one thing at a time. 
In this method, the motions of both arms and legs differ from 
those we have so carefully described, only in so far as they are 
modified by a more upright position. It is optional, therefore, with 
the reader, to practise either method. The general principles of 
both are now before him. 

The upright position a little inclined backwards, (which, like 
every other change of posture, must be done deliberately, by 
the corresponding movement of the head,) reversing in this case 
the motion of the arms, and striking the flat part of the foot 
down and a little forward, gives the motion backward, which is 
performed with greater ease than when the body is laid hori- 
zontally on the back. According to this system, Bernardi says, 
a swimmer ought at every stroke to urge himself forward a dis- 
tance equal to the length of his body. A good swimmer ought 
to make about three miles an hour. A good day's journey may 



04 



SWIMMING. 



thus be achieved, if the strength be used with due discretion, 
and the swimmer be familiar with the various means by which 
it may be recruited. 

Of Bernardi's successful practice, he says, " Having been ap- 
pointed to instruct the youths of the Royal Naval Academy of 
Naples in the art of swimming, a trial of the proficiency of the 
pupils took place, under the inspection of a number of people 
assembled on the shore for that purpose, on the tenth day of 
their instruction. A twelve-oared boat attended the progress of 
the pupils, from motives of precaution. They swam so far out 
in the bay, that at length the heads of the young men could 
with difficulty be discerned with the naked eye ; and the Major 
General of Marine, Forteguerri, for whose inspection the exhi- 
bition was intended, expressed serious apprehensions for their 
safety. Upon their return to the shore, the young men, how- 
ever, assured him that they felt so little exhausted as to be 
willing immediately to repeat the exertion." An official report 
on the subject has also been drawn up by commission (appointed 
by the Neapolitan government), after devoting a month to the 
investigation of Bernardi's plan ; and it states as follows : 

u 1st. It has been established by the experience of more than 
a hundred persons of different bodily constitutions, that the 
human body is lighter than water, and consequently will float 
by nature ; but that the art of swimming must be acquired, to 
render that privilege useful. 

"2dly. That Bernardi's system is new, in so far as it is 
founded on the principle of husbanding the strength, and ren- 
dering the power of recruiting it easy. The speed, according 
to the new method, is no doubt diminished; but security is 
much more important than speed; and the new plan is not 
exclusive of the old, when occasions require great effort. 

" 3dly. That the new method is sooner learnt than the old, 
to the extent of advancing a pupil in one day as far as a month's 
instruction on the old plan." 



BACK SWIM MING* 



95 



Treading Water. 

This differs little from the system just described, As in it, 
the position is upright ; but progression is obtained by the action 
of the legs alone. There is little power in this method of swim- 
ming : but it may be very useful in rescuing drowning persons. 

The arms should be folded across, below the breast, or com- 
pressed against the hips, and the legs employed as in front 
swimming, except as to time and extent. They should perform 
their action in half the usual time, or two strokes should be 
taken in the time of one because, acting perpendicularly, each 
stroke would otherwise raise the swimmer too much, and he 
would sink too low between the strokes, were they not quickly 
to follow each other. They should also work in about two- 
thirds of the usual space, preserving the upper or. stronger, and 
omitting the lower or weaker, part of the stroke. 

There is, however, another mode of treading water, in which 
the thighs are separated, and the legs slightly bent, or curved 
together, as in a half- sitting posture. Here the legs are used 
alternately, so that, while one remains more contracted, the 
other, less so, describes a circle. By this method, the swimmer 
does not seem to hop in the water, but remains nearly at the 
same height. Plate XXXII. represents both these methods, 
and shows their peculiar adaptation to relieve drowning persons. 

BACK SWIMMING. 

In swimming on the back, the action of the thoracic mem- 
ber is weaker, because the swimmer can support himself on the 
water without their assistance. The muscular contractions take 
place principally in the muscles of the abdominal members, and in 
those of the anterior part of the neck. Though little calculated 
for progression, it is the easiest of all methods, because, much 
of the head being immersed, little effort is required for support. 
For this purpose, the swimmer must he down gently upon the 
water ; the bod}* extended ; the head kept in a line with it, so 
that the back and much of the upper part of the head may be 



96 



SWIMMING. 



immersed ; the head and breast must remain perfectly unagitated 
by the action of the legs ; the hand laid on the thighs (Plate 
XXXIII. rig. 1) 3 and the legs employed as in front s wimming , 
care being taken that the knees do not rise out of the water. — 
(Plate XXXIII. rig. 2.) The arms may, however, be used in 
various ways in swimming on the back. 

In the method called winging, the arms are extended till in a 
line with each other; they must then be struck down to the 
thighs, with the palms tinned in that direction, and the thumbs 
inclining downward to increase the buoyancy, (Plate XXXIV. 
fig. 1) ; the palms must then be moved edgewise, and the arms 
elevated as before (Plate XXXIV. rig. 2) ; and so on, repeating 
the same actions. The legs should throughout make one 
stroke as the arms are struck down, and another as they are 
elevated. The other mode, called tinning, differs from this only 
in the stroke of the arms being shorter, and made in the same 
time as that of the legs. 

In back swimming, the body should be extended after each 
stroke, and long pauses made between these. The act of passing 
from front to back, or back to front swimming, must always be 
performed immediately after throwing out the feet. To turn 
from the breast to the back, the legs must be raised forward, and 
the head thrown backward, until the body is in a right position. 
To turn from the back to the breast, the legs must be dropped, 
and the body thrown forward on the breast. 

FLOATING. 

Floating is properly a transition from swimming on the back. 
To effect it, it is necessary, while the legs are gently exercising, 
to extend the arms as far as possible beyond the head, equi- 
distant from, and parallel with its sides, but never rising above 
the surface ; to immerse the head rather deeply, and elevate 
the chin more than the forehead; to innate the chest while 
taking this position, and so to keep it as much as possible ; and 
to cease the action of the legs, and put the feet together. (Plate 
XXXV. fig. 1.) The swimmer will thus be able to float, rising 




\ 



/ 



SIDE SWIMMING — PLUNGING, 97 

a little with every inspiration, and falling with every expiration. 
Should the feet descend, the loins may be hollowed. 

SIDE SWIMMING. 

For this purpose, the body may be turned either upon the 
right or left side : the feet must perform their usual motions : 
the arms also require peculiar guidance. In lowering the 
left, and elevating the right side, the swimmer must strike 
forward with .the left hand, and side wise with the right ; the 
back of the latter being front instead of upward, and the thumb 
side of the hand downward to serve as an oar. In turning on 
the right side, the swimmer must strike out with the right hand, 
and use the left as an oar. In both cases, the lower arm 
stretches itself out quickly, at the same time that the feet are 
striking ; and the upper arm strikes at the same time that the 
feet are impelling, the hand of the latter arm beginning its 
stroke on a level with the head. While this hand is again 
brought forward,- and the feet are contracted, the lower hand is 
drawn back towards the breast, rather to sustain than to impel. 
( Plate XXXV. fig. 2.) As side swimming presents to the water 
a smaller surface than front swimming, it is preferable when 
rapidity is necessary. But, though generally adopted when it 
is required to pass over a short distance with rapidity, it is 
much more fatiguing than the preceding methods. 

PLUNGING. 

In the leap to plunge, the legs must be kept together, the 
arms close, and the plunge made either with the feet or the 
head foremost. With the feet foremost they must be kept 
together, and the body inclined backwards. With the head 
foremost, the methods vary. 

In the deep plunge, which is used where it is known that 
there is depth of water, the swimmer has his arms outstretched, 
his knees bent, and his body leant forwards (Plate XXXVI. 
fig. 1,) till the head descends nearly to the feet, when the spine 

H 



98 



SWIMMING. 



and knees are extended. This plunge may be made without 
the slightest noise. When the swimmer rises to the surface, 
he must not open his mouth before previously repelling the 
water. 

In the flat plunge, which is used in shallow water, or where 
the depth is unknown, and which can be made only from a 
small height, the swimmer must fling himself forwards, in order 
to extend the line of the plunge as much as possible under 
the surface of the water ; and, as soon as he touches it, he 
must keep his head up, his back hollow, and his hands stretched 
forward, flat and inclined upward. He will thus dart forwards 
a considerable way close under the surface, so that his head 
will reach it before the impulse ceases to operate. (Plate 
XXXVI. fig. 2.) 

DIVING. 

The swimmer may prepare for diving by taking a slow and 
full inspiration, letting himself sink gently into the water, 
and expelling the breath by degrees, when the heart begins 
to beat strongly. In order to descend in diving, the head 
must be bent forward upon the breast ; the back made round ; 
and the legs thrown out with greater vigour than usual ; but 
the arms and hands, instead of being struck forward as in 
swimming, must move rather backward, or come out lower, 
and pass more behind. (Plate XXXVII. fig. 1.) The eyes 
should, meanwhile, be kept open, as, if the water be clear, it 
enables the diver to ascertain its depth, and see whatever lies at 
the bottom ; and, when he has obtained a perpendicular position, 
he should extend his hands like feelers. 

To move forward, the head must be raised, and the back 
straightened a little. Still, in swimming between top and bot- 
tom, the head must be kept a little downward, and the feet be 
thrown out a little higher than when swimming on the surface 
(Plate XXXVII. fig. 2) ; and if the swimmer thinks that he ap- 
proaches too near the surface, he must press the palms upwards. 



THRUSTING — SPRINGING. 99 

To ascend, the chin must be held up, the back made concave, 
the hands struck out high, and brought briskly down. (Plate 

XXXVII. fig. 3.) 

THRUSTING. 

This is a transition from front swimming, in which the atti- 
tude and motions of the feet are still the same, but those of the 
hands very different. One arm, the right for instance, is lifted 
entirely out of the water, thrust forward as much as possible, 
and, when at the utmost stretch, let fall, with the hand hollowed, 
into the water, which it grasps or pulls towards the swimmer in 
its return transversely towards the opposite arm-pit. While the 
right arm is thus stretched forth, the left, with the hand ex- 
panded, describes a small circle to sustain the body (Plate 

XXXVIII. fig. 1) ; and, while the right arm pulls towards the 
swimmer, the left, in a widely-described circle, is carried rapidly 
under the breast, towards the hip. (Plate XXXVIII. fig. 2.) 

When the left arm has completed these movements, it, in its 
turn, is lifted from the water, stretched forward, and pulled 
back, — the right arm describing first the smaller, then the larger 
circle. The feet make their movements during the describing 
of the larger circle. The thrust requires much practice ; but, 
when well acquired, it not only relieves the swirnmer, but en- 
ables him to make great advance in the water, and is applicable 
to cases where rapidity is required for a short distance. 

SPRINGING. 

Some swimmers, at every stroke, raise not only their neck and 
shoulders, but breast and body, out of the water. This, when 
habitual, exhausts without any useful purpose. As an occa- 
sional effort, however, it maybe useful in seizing objects above; 
and it may then best be performed by the swimmer drawing his 
feet as close as possible under his body, stretching his hands 
forward, and, with both feet and hands, striking the water 
strongly, so as to throw himself out of it as high as the hips. 

h 2 



SWIMMING. 



ONE-ARM SWIMMING. 

Here the swimmer must be more erect than usual, hold his 
head more backward, and use the legs and arm more quickly 
and powerfully. The arm. at its full extent., must be struck out 
rather across the body., and brought down before, and the breast 
kept inflated. This mode of swimming: is best adapted for 
assisting persons who are drowning, and should be frequently 
practised — the learner carrying first under, then over the water, 
a weight of a few pounds. 

In assisting drowning persons, however, great care should be 
taken to avoid being caught hold of by them. They should be 
approached from behind, and driven before, or drawn after the 
swimmer to the shore., by the intervention, if possible., of any- 
thing that may be at hand, and if nothing be at hand, by means 
of their hair ; and they should, if possible, be got on their backs. 
Should they attempt to seize the swimmer, he must cast them 
loose immediately, and. if seized., drop them to the bottom, 
when they will endeavour to rise to the surface. 

Two swimmers treading water may assist a drowning person 
by seizing him, one under each arm, and earning him along 
with his head above water, and his body and limbs stretched 
out and motionless. 

FEATS IN SWIMMING. 

Men have been known to swim in then clothes a distance of 
4000 feet. 

Others have performed '2200 feet in twenty-nine minutes. 

Some learn to dive and bring out of the water burdens as 
heavy as a man. 

_This art. however, has made little if any progress from the 
earliest records that we possess of it. Leander s feat of passing 
from Abydos to Sestos was the crack performance of antiquity; 
and it was the ultra achievement of Lord Bvron. probably one 
of the best swimmers of our day. — Ed. Fifth Edition.] 



ROWING. 



10! 



ROWING. 

RIVER ROWING,* WITH TWO SCULLS. 
THE BOAT. 

It may be laid down as a general rule, that, in calm weather, 
a light and sharp boat is preferable ; and, in rough weather, a 
heavier and broader one. The learner, however, should not at 
first begin in too light a boat, nor should he practise in rough 
weather, until he gets acquainted with its management. 

TO LEAVE THE LANDING-PLACE. 

To leave the shore, the rower should, with the boat-hook, 
shove the boat off, head upon tide, or opposite to the current. 
To leave stairs, the rower must either shove the boat off with 
the boat-hook, or place the blade of the scull forward, and per- 
form what the London watermen call belaying the boat's head 
out from the shore, accordingly as there is deep or shallow 
water. 

This being done, the rower sits down to his sculls. These 
he puts in the rullocks, and turns the concave front, or filling of 
the scull, towards the stern of the boat. 

THE SEAT. 

The rower must sit a-midships on the thwart or seat of the 
boat, else she will heel to the side on which he is sitting, and 
much of his labour will be lost. He should sit with ease to 
himself, having his feet on the middle of the stretcher, and his 
legs not quite extended : but his knees, as he rows, should be 
brought down, and his legs stretched. 

THE PULL. 

The rower should make long strokes in a heavy boat, and 

* This should have the preference here, because the art is best learned on 
the smooth water, and in the lighter boats, of rivers. 



102 



ROWING. 



shorter and quicker strokes in a light boat. At the beginning 
of the pull, he must, in general, bend his body till his head is 
over his knees, and extend his arms as far aft as convenient, 
that the blades of the sculls may be thrown correspondingly for- 
ward. (Plate XXXIX.) With regard to the back in particular, 
some think that, if a short distance is to be rowed, it should be 
bent ; and that, if a long distance, it is less fatiguing to keep it 
straight. When the arms are extended as far aft, and the blades 
of the sculls as far forward as convenient — which must never be 
so far as to jam in the rullocks — (Plate XXXIX.), the rower 
must dip the sculls into the water, and pull towards him, by at 
once bending the arms and the body. 

When in the middle of the pull, if the sculls are not short 
enough, or even if the head and body are slightly turned, one of 
the hands will go higher than the other ; and, as the right is 
generally the stronger, it may go above, and the left below. It 
is often found difficult to keep one hand clear of the other in 
pulling a pair of sculls. This is so much the case, indeed, that 
the inexperienced frequently suffer more from the knocking 
and rubbing of the backs and sides of the hands against each 
other, than from the friction of the handles of the oars in the 
palms of the hands. This may be easily obviated by attending 
to the following advice : — 

Having seated yourself in the centre of the thwart, with your 
feet close together against the centre of the stretcher, ship your 
sculls, but, before pulling a stroke, move your body three or 
four inches to the right hand, and still retain your feet in the 
centre : thus you will be sitting rather obliquely ; this will throw 
your right shoulder more forward, and consequently the right 
hand; and thus the hands will work perfectly clear of each other. 
This rule, however, must be modified by the circumstances of 
river-rowing. A waterman writes us as follows : — M As to car- 
rying one hand above the other, my way is, that if, for instance, 
I go from Greenwich to Blackwall against tide, I keep down on 
the Greenwich side, in general look toward the shore, and hav- 
ing my face over the left shoulder, my right hand is then above. 



I i 

m 




v - 

11 




THE TIDE OR CURRENT. 



103 



If I go from Greenwich to London, my face is turned over the 
right shoulder, and the left hand is then uppermost. 5 ' 

(The usual position in the middle of the pull is shown in 
Plate XL.) 

The end of the pull must not take place till the elbows have 
approached the tops of the hips, the hands are brought towards 
the chest, and the body is thrown well back. There would be 
a loss of power, however, if the hands were brought too near 
the chest ; and the body should not be thrown further back than 
it may easily and quickly recover its first position for the next 
stroke. — (Plate XLI.) As the water is being delivered from 
the sculls, the elbows sink, the wrists are bent up, and the backs 
of the hands are turned towards the fore-arms, in order to 
feather the sculls. — (Plate XLL) 

In the return of the sculls, the hands must remain turned up 
until the sculls are put into the water. — (Plate XLII.) In the 
middle of the return, if the sculls are not short, or if the head 
and body be turned, one of the hands also goes higher than the 
other. 

As to the degree of the immersion of the sculls. — In the mid- 
dle of the pull, the blades must be covered by the water. The 
learner in general dips them very deep ; but that ought to be 
avoided, especially in calm weather. In the whole of the return, 
the tips should, in calm weather, be two or three inches above 
the water ; and, in rough weather, they should be higher, in 
order to clear it, as represented in the preceding Plates. The 
head ought throughout to be very moveable — first to one side, 
then to the other, but generally turned towards the shore when 
against the tide. The same movements have only to be repeated, 
throughout the course. 

THE TIDE OR CURRENT. 

In river- rowing, when the tide or current is with the rower, 
a learner should in general take the middle of the stream. In 
rowing with the tide, however, watermen generally cut off the 
points, in order to keep a straight course. When the tide or 



104 



ROWING. 



current is against the rower, he should take the sides, preferring 
that side on which, owing to the course of the river 3 the current 
is least. As there is an eddy under the points, watermen gene- 
rally, when rounding them, shoot the water to the next point, 
and so on. 

TO TURN. 

Back water with one scull, by putting the one on the side 
you wish to turn to into the water, with its concave front or 
filling towards you, and pushing against it; and at the same 
time pull strongly with the other scull, until the boat's head is 
turned round. 

MEETING OR PASSING. 

In meeting, the boat which comes with the tide must get out 
of the way. In this case, both boats, if close, lay the blades of 
their sculls flat on the water, lift them out of the rullocks, and 
let them drift alongside. Each replaces them when the other 
has passed. In passing a boat, the rower who passes must take 
the outside, unless there is ample room within, and must also 
keep clear of the other's sculls or oars. If one boat is crossing 
the water, and another coming with the tide, the one coming 
with tide must keep astern of the other, and have a good look- 
out ahead. 

TO LAND. 

Give the boat its proper direction, and keep its head incli] 
towards the tide, and its stern will turn up or down, as the tide 
runs ; unship the sculls by the manoeuvre directed above : but, 
instead of letting them drift alongside, lay them in the boat, the 
blades forward and the looms aft: seize the headfast; jump 
ashore ; and take two half-hitches round the post or ring. 

SEA-ROWING, OR ROWING IN A GALLEY ON THE RIVER. 

In launching a boat from the sea-beach, when it is rough, 
and there is a heavy surf, the two bowmen must get into the 
boat with their oars run out ; and the other rowers follow the 



SEA-ROWING. 



105 



boat quickly in her descent ; but tbey should not jump in till 
she is quite afloat, lest their weight might fix her on the beach, 
and she might ship a sea. 

It may happen, that immediately on the boat floating, a sea 
shall take the bow (before the rowers are sufficiently prepared 
with their oars to keep her head out), and place her broadside 
to the waves. In this situation, the boat is in danger of being 
swamped, and the lives of those on board are in peril. When 
thus situated, it is best for two of the rowers to go near the bow 
of the boat, and immediately force each his boat-hook or oar 
on the ground, on the shore side of the boat, as the most 
effectual, safe, and expeditious method of bringing her head 
again to the sea. Should there be more than a usual swell, both 
the rowers and the sitter, or steersman, cannot be too particular 
in keeping, throughout, the head of the boat to the swell, as 
lying broadside to a heavy sea is extremely dangerous. 

In rowing, each man has in general a single oar, and sits on 
the opposite side of the galley from the rullock through which 
his oar passes. The oar must consequently cross the boat, and 
be held on its opposite side, so as to clear the back of the man 
before. 

It should be neither held nor pulled obliquely to the side by 
twisting the body, as is practised by many, because the muscles 
in that case act disadvantageously, and are sooner fatigued. The 
stroke must be longer in sea than in river rowing. The oar 
must be thrown out with a heave, caused by the simultaneous 
extension of the body and the arms. It is still more essential 
to feather in sea than in river rowing. 

The oar must be drawn back with great power, caused by the 
simultaneous contraction of the body and arms; time with 
the other rowers being accurately kept, and distinctly marked. 

When the oars are delivered from the water, the time, until 
they go into it again, may be counted, one, two, three, — when 
they pass through the water. This time is kept by the strokes- 
man, or sternmost man of the rowers. 

In landing, the word is, " in bow," when the bowman or 



106 



SAILING. 



foremost man gets the boat-hook ready to clear away for the 
shore, or the stairs. The next word is from the coxwain, 
"rowed off all," or "well rowed;" when all the oars are laid 
in, with the blades forward, and the boat is made fast. 

In landing on the sea-beach, when there is a surf, the rowers 
may watch for a smooth, and then give good way ashore, when 
the bowman should instantly jump out with the headfast or 
penter, and pull her up, to avoid shipping a sea. The distances 
run in this way are very great. We have known four men, in 
a short galley, row thirty miles in four hours, namely, from 
Dover to eight miles below Calais, or abreast of Gravelines, on 
the opposite coast. In such a row, a London waterman would 
have no skin left on his hands ; and a member of the Funny 
Club would, we suppose, have no hands left on his arms ! 



SAILING. 

BOATS, ETC. 

Cutters, owing to their excellent sailing qualities, are much 
employed as packets*, revenue cruisers, smugglers, privateers, 
and in all cases requiring despatch. The boats commonly em- 
ployed in parties of pleasure, &c, are also cutters. 

On the size of these vessels, however, it is necessary to re- 
mark, that a cutter under one hundred tons is sufficiently 
handy ; but, when the size is equal to that of the larger yachts, 
a strong crew is necessary, as the spars are very heavy, and a 
number of men requisite to set or shorten sail. As a single- 
masted vessel, in the event of springing a spar, becomes helpless, 
even large cutters are used only in short voyages, or on the 
coast ; for, in case of accident, they can always manage to reach 
some harbour or anchorage to repair any damage they may 

* In the packet line, since the general adoption of steam, cutters are seldom 
if ever met with.— Ed. Fifth Edition. 



BOATS, ETC. 



107 



sustain. The peculiar qualities of beating well to windward, 
and working on short tacks, adapt cutters peculiarly for Channel 
cruising. 

Although, some years back, large cutters were confined prin- 
cipally to the navy and revenue, the Royal Yacht Squadron, in 
theirs, have exceeded these not only in size, but in beauty and 
sailing qualities. Some of the finest and fastest cutters in the 
world are the property of this national club ; and two of them, 
the Alarm (Mr. Weld's), and the Arundel*, (the Duke of Nor- 
folk's, measure 193 and 188 tons. The inconvenient size, however, 
of a cutter's boom and mainsail has caused the very general intro- 
duction of a ketch rig, which, by the addition of a mizen, per- 
mits the boom to be dispensed with, and reduces the mainsail 
considerably. This rig, indeed, when the mizen stands well, is 
elegant; and, if a vessel is short-handed, it is very handy. As 
cutter-rigged vessels, instead of a regular mainsail, with its 
boom and gaff, have sometimes a mere spritsail, it is necessary 
we should observe, that the inferior convenience and safety of 
these preclude our noticing them here. It is also necessary 
that we should explain why, in the sequel, we do not even refer 
to lugger-rigged vessels. 

Luggers are more difficult to work or manoeuvre ; they re- 
quire a greater number of men ; their spars are so heavy that 
they require all hands to move them : their decks are inevitably 
lumbered with spars, &c. ; their canvass gets rotted from ex- 
posure ; and their expense is much greater than that of cutters. 
They generally have two sets of lugs — large ones, which require 
dipping every time they tack, and small working lugs, which do 
not require dipping, the tack coming to the foot of the mast. 
The latter are generally used, except in making long reaches 
across the Channel, &c. A lugger, moreover, is seldom fit to 
be altered to any thing but a schooner, not having breadth 
enough for one mast, which, after all, is the best for beauty and 
speed. 

* The tonnage of the Arundel is not given here according to the Royal 
Yacht Squadron list : there it is stated to be 210 tons.— Ed. Fifth Edition. 



SAIU 



Sailing men. indeed, are now so perfectly aware of the inferior 

speed of loggers, that we never see a lugger or schooner enter 
against a entter at afl near its tonnage . At sea, luggers ~ouId 
hare a better chance : though even there many would prefer 
cutters, except in foul weather and a long reach. In short, 
these vessels suit only a few noblemen and gentlemen who have 
enough of patriotic ambition to desire to look like smugglers, 
enough of delicacy to disregard the being though: dirty lubbers 
by their own men — some of whom are nor dirty from mere taste 
or choice, and enough of penetration not to discover, that on 
their landing with filthy clothes and tarry hands, every old 
sailor grins or laughs at their imagining, that it was they, and 
not the man at the helm,, who had kept the canvass from crack- 
ing, or the sticks from going over the side. Our descriptions 
apply, therefore, to cutters alone ; and the Plates at the end of 
this article illustrate the various parts therein referred to. 

Upon the Thames, the sailing clubs comprise the Royal 
Sailing Society, the Royal Thames Yach: Club, the Loyal 
Victoria Yacht Club, the Clarence, British, Royal Yacht, and 
several minor associations. Several cups and prizes are 
annually given during the season: and the spirited contests 
between the beautiful small craft which form these fancy fleets, 
are highly interesting. The sailing matches on the river are of 
two sorts — one above, and the other below the bridges. The 
smaller yachts, of from six to twenty-six tons, are commonly 
entered for the former, and a larger class for the latter, which 
take place between Greenwich and Gravesend. These national 
amusements appear to be rapidly gaining the rust place among 
fashionable recreations, and now occupy the season, from the 
period when hunting ends, till shooting begins. 

The Royal Yacht Squadron has nearly six hundred persons 
on its lists, of which above one hundred are members, and 
about four hundred and fifty bonorary members. The number 
of yachts is one hundred and nine* ; of which eighty-seven are 

* As the Dumber is constantly nuctuaticg-. vre had better take the avenge at 
b hundred, which will be found quite as hi^h a one as we should be justified 

m suggesting - . 



BOATS. ETC. 



109 



cutters, ten schooners, three brigs, four yawls, two ships, two 
ketches, and one lugger. The greater pare of these vessels 
hail from Cowes or Southampton. The shipping belonging 
to the club amounts to 7-50 tons. Now, a vessel of one 
hundred tons seldom perhaps stands the owner in less than 
from five to six thousand pounds, varying from that to ten, 
according to the profusion of ornamental parts, the internal 
fittings, and other contingencies. At this rate, the shipping 
of the club would have cost more than three millions and 
a half of money : but it is impossible to speak decisively on 
this point, as the first cost of the yachts varies much, and the 
numerous styles of rig are attended with expenses so widely 
different. At a moderate computation, each vessel belonging 
to the club carries ten men on an average : this gives the total 
number employed 1090. During the summer months, then, 
while regattas are celebrated, it may be said that the Royal 
Yacht Squadron alone employs more than 1100 men. These, with 
some few exceptions, are discharged on the approach of winter, 
and the yachts are laid up for the season, retaining the master 
and one man in pay. The crews thus discharged obtain em- 
ployment in merchant -vessels, or otherwise, during the winter ; 
and in the middle of spring, are generally re-shipped in the 
yachts in which they have previously served. On these con- 
ditions, active and industrious men of good character are gene- 
rally sure of employment in the club ; and many members 
justly pride themselves on the high discipline, manly bearing, 
•and crack appearance of their crews. The situation of master, 
in particular, is one of much responsibility, and is on all ac- 
counts respectably filled. In some of the largest craft, junior 
officers of the navy are found to accept this office. The sailing 
regulations of the Royal Yacht Squadron are as follow ; 

First — Members entering their yachts must send the names 
of them to the secretary one week previous to the day of sailing, 
and pay two guineas entrance at the same time. 

Second — All vessels starting or entering must be the bond fide 
property of members, as well as their spars, sails, boats, &c. 



110 



SAILING. 



Third — Each member is allowed to enter one vessel only for 
all prizes given by the club. 

Fourth—Cutters may carry four sails only, viz., mainsail, 
foresail, jib, and gaff top-sail ; yawls, luggers, schooners, and 
all other vessels, in like proportion. No booming out allowed. 

Fifth — No trimming with ballast, or shifting of ballast allowed ; 
and all vessels to keep their platforms down, and bulkheads 
standing. 

Sixth — Vessels on the larboard tack must invariably give way 
to those on the starboard tack ; and in all cases where a doubt 
of the possibility of the vessel on the larboard tack weathering 
the one on the starboard tack shall exist, the vessel on the 
larboard tack shall give way ; or, if the other vessel keep her 
course, and run into her, the owner of the vessel on the lar- 
board tack shall be compelled to pay all damages, and forfeit 
his claim to the prize. 

Seventh — Vessels running on shore shall be allowed to use 
their own anchors and boats actually on board to get them off, 
afterwards weighing anchor and hoisting the boat in ; but, upon 
receiving assistance from any other vessel or vessels, boats, or 
anchors, shall forfeit all claim to the prize. 

Eighth — That nothing but the hand-line be used for sounding. 

Ninth — Any deviation from these rules shall subject the 
aggressor to forfeit all claim to the prize. 

Tenth — If any objection be made with regard to the sailing 
of any other vessel in the race, such objection must be made to 
the stewards, within one hour after the vessel making the ob- 
jection arrive at the starting-post. 

Eleventh — No vessel shall be allowed to take in ballast, or 
take out, for twenty-four hours previous to starting ; and no 
ballast shall be thrown overboard. 

Twelfth — Vessels shall start from moorings laid down at a 
cable-length distance, with their sails set ; and every vessel not 
exceeding one hundred tons shall carry a boat not less than 
ten feet long ; and vessels exceeding one hundred tons, a boat 
not less than fourteen feet long. 



COURSES, ETC. 



Ill 



Thirteenth — There shall be a member, or honorary member, 
on board each vessel. 

Fourteenth — The time of starting may be altered by the 
stewards ; and all disputes that may arise are to be decided by 
them, or such persons as they shall appoint. 



The Northern Yacht Club is a highly interesting society, 
although its plan is not so extensive as that of the Royal Club. 
It contains about three hundred and fifty members. The docu- 
ments for 1830 comprise ninety-two in the Scottish, and ninety 
in the Irish division, with fifty-two honorary members, in ad- 
dition to ninety-three members of the Cork Yacht Club, who 
are also entered on the honorary lists. It had, in 1830, sixty 
yachts, not equal in proportion to the tonnage of the Cowes 
Club, as smaller vessels are admitted. Many R. Y. S. men are 
found in the Northern Club. There are many fine vessels in 
this club. Cutters, as usual, excel in number. 

At the lowest computation, the number of vessels at present 
employed for pleasure in this country cannot be less than from 
three to four hundred, ranging in bulk from ten to three hun- 
dred and fifty tons. These are variously distributed along our 
shores, carrying their opulence into every port and harbour. 
But there is another advantage arising from yacht clubs — 
namely, that national spirit, which, to a maritime people, is 
above all in worth. The yacht clubs keep alive this feeling in 
an eminent degree. 

COURSES, ETC. 

Even in describing the elementary nautical operations which 
such boats require, it is necessary to lay down a position for the 
harbour, direction for the wind, and trip for the vessel. 

Let us suppose, then, that the mouth of the harbour lies 
towards the south ; that the wind blows from the north, with 
a little inclination to east, and that we wish first to sail due 
south to get out of the harbour, next direct our course east- 



112 



SAILING. 



ward, then return westward till we get abreast the mouth of the 
harbour, and lastly, northward, to enter the harbour and come 
to our moorings. 

These courses will, with variations in the force of the wind, 
illustrate every common and useful manoeuvre. 

GETTING UNDER WAY. 

Ship* the tiller. t 

Set the mainsail*; hoist the throat § nearly close up; and 
half hoist the peak. || 

Bend* 7 and haul the jib out to the bowsprit end. 
Bowse the bobstay** and bowsprit shrouds f t well taut. 
Hoist the jib. and bowse it well up. 

Get the topmast staylj. backstays §§, and rigging well 
taut. 

Hoist the foresail ready to cast*I*[ her when the moorings 
are let go. 

Send a hand to the helm.*** 

* Fix in its proper place. 

t The piece of wood or beam put into the head of the rudder to move it. 

i Unfurl it by casting- the stops or gaskets off. 

§ The foremost end of the gaff, or that end next the mast. 

| The outermost end of the gaff, or that farthest from the mast. 

% Hook it to the traveller, or ring 1 on the bowsprit. 

** A rope or chain from the end of the bowsprit to half-way down the stem. 

ft Ropes from the bowsprit end on each side to the bows. 

±± A rope from the topmast head to the outer end of the bowsprit, where it 
passes through a sheave or small block, comes in by the stem head, and is 
belayed or made fast (done generally by winding several times backwards and 
forwards in the manner of a figure S). to its cleat or pin. 

§§ Ropes from the after-part of the head of the topmast to the after-part of 
the channels on each side. 

||]| Or shouds — ropes from each side the top-mast head, through the cross- 
tree arms, to the fore part of the channels, between the first and second lower 
shroud. They are set up or hauled taut, as are the backstays, by means of a 
small tackle, one block of which is hooked to the thimble spliced into the 
lower end of the shroud or backstay, and the other to an eye-bolt in the 
channels. 

rf To turn her head in the most advantageous direction. 
*** This term includes both the tiller and the wheel ; but, as the yawing 
motion of a small light vessel is correspondingly light and feeble, though 



BEFORE THE WIND. 



113 



Overhaul the main-sheet*, and the leef runner and tackle J ; 
lower the throat, and hoist the peak of the mainsail taut§ up. 

Hoist the gaff topsail ||, keeping the tackH to windward** of 
the peak halyards ft* and hauling the slack of the sheet out 
before you hoist the sail taut up. 

Set the tack, and heave the sheet well taut. 

BEFORE THE WIND.JJ 

With the Main Boom over to Starboard.^ 
In managing the helm, be careful not to jibe the mainsail. 
When a vessel is going large ||||, the helmsman should always 
place himself on the weather side of the tiller, or the side opposite 
to that which the main boom is over, as his view of the vessel's 
head will then be unobstructed by the sails. The boat now 
running before the wind, haul the tack of mainsail up. If the 
wind come dead aft, you may flatten aft the jib and foresail 
sheets ITU, or haul the foresail down to prevent chafing. If 

much quicker than that of a large vessel, she is best without a wheel, which 
is meant to gain power at the expense of time. 

* A rope or tackle for regulating the horizontal position of the main boom. 

t The leeward or lee-side is the opposite to windward. 

% A compound tackle, used in cutter-rigged vessels, instead of a backstay to 
the lower mast, on account of its easy removal allowing the main boom to go 
forward, in going large. 

§ The nautical way of pronouncing and writing tight. 

R The sail above the mainsail. The sheet hauls out to a small block on the 
outer end of the gaff. 

f Tack is the lowermost corner opposite to the sheet, in all fore-and-aft sails 
and studding sails. 

** The windward or weather side, is that side on which the wind blows. 

ft The ro P e by which the peak of the gaff or boom, to which the head of the 
mainsail is fastened, is hoisted. Halyards always signifies a rope by which a 
sail is hoisted. 

±i That is, going the same way the wind blows. Her course is then sixteen 
points from the wind. (See Compass.) 

§§ Starboard is the right, and larboard the left hand side, when looking 
toward the head of the vessel. 

|| i| Or free, not close-hauled. Generally understood as having the wind 
abaft the beam, or that her course is then eight points from the wind. 

f % Ropes fast to the aftermost lower corner of the jib and foresail, to hold 

I 



114 



SAILING. 



the wind come at all round on the starboard quarter*, slack 
off the boom guyf; haul in the main-sheet till you get the 
boom a-midships J, or nearly so ; port § the helm, and jibe the 
mainsail ; slack off the main-sheet again, and hook the guy on 
the larboard side ; haul taut the starboard runner and tackle, 
and overhaul the larboard one ; the same with the topping-lift [| ; 
hoist the head sails IF, and shift the sheets over. 

N.B. If you are obliged to jibe as above, you must, in the 
following directions for bringing the wind on your beam, read 
larboard for starboard, and vice versa. 

BRINGING THE VESSEL WITH THE WIND ON THE LARBOARD 
BEAM.** 

Supposing that you have not jibed, starboard the helm 
a little, and let the vessel spring her luff ft with her head 
to' the northward. Slack the boom guy, and haul in the 

them down. The jib has two ropes or sheets fast to its corner, one of which 
comes on each side the forestay, for the convenience of tacking, &c. The 
foresail has only one sheet, which is fast to the traveller, or ring on the horse 
or bar of iron, which crosses from one gunwale to the other, just before the 
mast. 

* The point on either side where the side and stern meet, 
t A small tackle, one end of which is hooked to the main boom, and the 
other forward, to keep the boom from swinging. 
% Midway between the sides of the vessel. 

§ Instead of larboard, when speaking of the helm, port is the proper term, 
in contrariety to starboard, used for the sake of distinctness in directing the 
helmsman. 

|| Stout ropes which lead, one from each side the main boom, near its outer 
end, through a block on its respective side the mast, just under the cross- 
trees, whence it descends about half-way, and is connected to the deck or 
gunwale by a tackle. 

% Jib and foresail. * 

** That is, athwart or across the waist of the vessel, called a-beam, because 
it is in the same direction that her beams lay, or at right angles with her 
keel. Her head is then eight points from the wind.— The wind is said to be 
abaft the beam, or before the beam, according as the vessel's head is more or 
less than eight points from the wind. 

ft Sail nearer to the wind. 



CLOSE-HAULING THE VESSEL. 



115 



main- sheet. Haul aft * the jib-sheet, and bowline f the fore- 
sail. 

If she come up fast, port the helm X a little, and meet her, 
then right § it when she lays her proper course. 

Hook and haul taut the lee runner and tackle. You will now 
find it necessary to carry the helm a little a-port or a-weather. 

If, instead of directing our course eastward, we had preferred 
doing so westward, we must have jibed previous to bringing 
the wind on the beam, and then the preceding operations would 
necessarily have been, to a corresponding extent, reversed. 

CLOSE-HAULING THE VESSEL. || 

To haul the vessel to the wind, ease the helm downll a little. 
Haul in the main-sheet upon the proper mark. Bowse the fore- 
sheet, and haul the jib-sheet well aft. Bowse the runner and 
tackle well taut. 

The vessel is now on the wind, plies to windward, or is close- 
hauled.** 

Being now apt to gripe, or come up into the wind with a 
sudden jerk, now and again, she will carry her helm more or 
less a-weather. The helmsman must watch the weather-leach 
of the mainsail, to prevent the vessel getting her head in the 
wind. 

* That is, toward the hinder part or stern. 

t A rope made fast to the foremost shroud, and passed through a thimble in 
the after-leach of the foresail, then round the shroud again, and round the sheet. 

$ Always put the helm the contrary way to that which you want the 
vessel's head to turn. 

§ That is, bring it a-midships ; the same with steady. 

|| To haul the sheets aboard, or more a-midships, by which means the 
vessel's head will come closer to the point the wind blows from. 

% To leeward. 

** These terms all imply one thing, viz., that the vessel is sailing as near as 
possible to the point whence the wind blows. Xo square-rigged vessel will 
sail within less than six, and no fore-and-aft rigged vessel within less than 
five, points of the wind, to have anv head-wav. 

i 2 



116 



SAILING 



TACKING.* 

Having got abreast or opposite the mouth of the harbour, 
haul the fore bowline. " Ready about."f Put your helm up, 
or to windward a little, and let the vessel go rather off the wind, 
to get good way on her ; then gently down or to leeward with 
it, which is announced by the helmsman calling " Helm's a-lee." 
Let fly the jib-sheet : this takes off the balance of wind from 
her head, and acts in concert with the helm in sweeping her 
stern to leeward, or rather in allowing her head to come quicker 
up into the wind. 

The man who attends the jib-sheet must carefully gather in 
the slack J of the one opposite to that which he let go. When 
the jib comes over the larboard side of the stay§, haul the lar- 
board jib-sheet well aft. When the mainsail is filled, let draw 
the foresail. |) Right the helm, and shift over the tack of the 
mainsail. 

One hand should attend the main-sheet, to gather in the 

* To turn a vessel from one side to the other with her head toward the 
wind. When a vessel is obliged to tack several times successively to get to 
windward, she is said to be beating to windward ; when to get up or down a 
harbour, channel, &c, beating up or down, &c. ; when trying to get off a lee 
shore, clawing off. 

A vessel's tacks are always to windward and forward ; and her sheets, to 
leeward and aft ; whence the terms larboard or starboard tack, meaning that 
she has her tacks aboard on the larboard or starboard side. 

t A command that all hands are to be attentive, and at their stations for 
tacking. 

$ Or loose rope. 

§ The fore-stay, or large rope from the lower mast, head to the stem head, 
to prevent the mast from springing when the vessel is sending deep, or fallen 
into the hollow between two waves, after pitching. 

|| That is, let go the bowline which holds the sail to this, now weather 
shroud. It was held there till now, that the wind might act upon it with 
greater power to turn the vessel, from the time her head was about half-way 
round. The expression is derived from its being necessary, in larger vessels 
of a similar rig, to ease the rope gradually as the sail draws it. From the 
time the jib-sheet is let fly, till the foresail is let draw, the vessel is said to be 
in stays. 



REEFING, TAKING IN SAIL, ETC. 



117 



slack till the boom is a-midships, and then ease it off as the 
sail fills, and the vessel lays over to port. When the vessel is 
in stays, and it is doubtful whether she will come round, or, in 
order to make her come round when she gathers stern-way, 
shift the helm to the opposite side. She is now about upon 
the starboard tack. 

REEFING, TAKING IN SAIL, ETC. 

Haul the fore- sheet up to windward ; bowline it there, and 
heave her to. Keep the tiller shipped, and lash it a-lee. In gaff 
topsail ; lower the halyards ; and haul down. Send a hand aloft 
to unbend the sheet from the sail, and make it fast to the main 
halyard bolt ; and unlash the gaff topsail, and send it down. 
Lower the main halyards and peak to the second reef cringle, 
and reef the mainsail. 

Hook the reef tackle* to the first earing f ; haul upon it till 
the cringle J is close down upon the boom ; and belay the tackle. 
Pass a small gasket § through the tack and the first reef cringle, 
and lash the two firmly together, taking care to gather in snug 
the luff of the sail, so that the leach rope belonging to it forms a 
sort of snake near the mast. Haul up the tack, and bowse upon 
the weather peak line, keeping the other part fast a-midships of 
the boom. This will hold the belly of the sail partly to wind- 
ward, and make it easier to tie the reef-points. Observe to 
keep the foot-rope outside and under the sail. 

Let one man jump upon the boom to tie the outer points so 

* A small tackle formed of two hook blocks, one of which is hooked to the 
under part of the boom about one third from the mast, and the other farther 
aft. The fall is belayed to a cleat under the boom. 

t A stout rope, one end of which is made fast to the boom at the same 
distance from the mast as the reef cringle to which it belongs. It ascends, 
passes through the cringle, descends and passes through a sheave on the side 
of the boom, then in board, and is stopped to the boom by means of its lan- 
yard, or small line spliced into its end for the purpose. This lanyard is also to 
make it fast when the sail is reefed, and you wish to remove the tackle. 

:t A short loop of rope with a thimble or small ring of iron inside it, spliced 
to the leach of the sail. 

§ A rope made by plaiting rope-yarns. 



118 



SAILING. 



far that the rest can be tied on board. Let go the tack and 
peak line, always keeping the ends of this fast under the boom. 
Hoist the sail taut up ; and set taut the tack tackle. Shift the 
jib to No. 2. Overhaul the jib purchase ; let go the outhaul ; 
haul the jib down ; unhook the tack ; unbend the sheets ; and 
send the sail down below. 

You have now got one reef in the mainsail. If it come on 
to blow harder, and you want a second reef, lower the sail, and 
haul on the peak line as before ; nipper the first reef-earing so 
as to hold it a short time ; let go the reef tackle, and unhook it 
from the earing, which make fast with its lanyard round the 
boom. 

You have now got the tackle to use for the second reef. Pro- 
ceed as for the first reef. Shift the jib to No. 3, and proceed 
as before. If third, the same, after rigging the bowsprit. Take 
the fid* or bolt out of the heel of the bowsprit, and rig the 
bowsprit in about one fid hole. Haul taut the topmast stay and 
bowsprit rigging. Bend and set the small jib in the same way 
as any other. 

You may want to stow the mainsail, set the trysail, and make 
her otherwise snug in proportion. Sway away upon the top 
rope ; lift the mast a little to let the man unfid it ; and lower 
topmast down in the slings. Lower the fore halyards, and reef 
the foresail. Gather the luff of the sail up ; make the fore- 
most reef-earing cringle fast to the tack ; shift the sheet from 
the clue of the sail to the after reef cringle ; and tie the points. 
If the weather is very heavy, haul down the stay-sail, and tend 
the vessel with a tackle upon the weather jib-sheet. 

When it comes fine weather again, make sail in precisely the 
reverse order to that in which you shorten it. Continue to 
tack in the wind's eye till you are to windward of the harbour. 

* A bar of wood or iron, which passes horizontally through a hole in each 
bitt and the heel of the bowsprit, to secure it in its place, much in the same 
way that a carriage pole is secured. 



SAILING. 



119 



PASSING OTHER VESSELS. 



All vessels sailing before the wind keep out of the way of 
those upon the wind. In the river Thames, vessels which sail 
with the larboard tack aboard, keep away for those with the 
starboard tack aboard. 



Lower and haul down the gaff topsail. Let go the jib tack 
or outhaul*; lower the jib: and pull on the down-hauler, to 
bring the traveller in. Haul the tack of the mainsail up ; and 
lower the peak. Down foresail. 

Let a small boat run away the wrap to the quay. Lower, and 
stow the mainsail. Unbend the jib, and stow it below if dry 
and not immediately wanted, and hook the halyards to the 
traveller, close in by the stem. If otherwise, hoist upon the 
halyards, and let it hang to dry if it require it, or stop it up 
and down the foremost shroud. Haul the vessel to the moor- 
ings, and moor properly, putting fenders over to keep her from 
the quay. 

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XLII1. 
Fig. 1. 

The mariner's compass. 



BRINGING THE VESSEL INTO HARBOUR. 



Fig. 2. 

Plan of the deck, with the bowsprit rigged out, &c. 



1. Bowsprit. 

2. 2. Bowsprit shrouds. 

3. Stem head. 

4. Bowsprit bitts. 

5. Fore hatchway. 

6. Windlass and bitts. 

7. Fore-sheet horse, 
ft Place of the mast. 



12. Tiller. 

13. Cabin skylight. 

14. Rudder-head and case. 

15. Taffrail. 



9. 9. Channels. 

10. Main hatchway. 

11. Companion and binnacle. 



* A rope made fast to the traveller, to haul it out to the bowsprit end. 



120 



SAILING. 



PLATE XLIV. 



Pleasure boat, cutter-rigged, lying at anchor; foresail and 
mainsail bent and stowed. 



1. Vane and spindle. 

2. Truck. 

3. Topmast. 

4. Cap. 

5. Trussel trees. 

6. Lower mast. 

7. 7. Cross trees. 

8. Bowsprit. 

9. Gaff, with mainsail furled. 
0. Main boom. 

11. Tiller. 

12. Rudder. 

13. Stem. 

14. 14. Topmast shrouds. 

15. Topmast backstay. 



16. Topmast stay. 

17. Runner and tackle. 

18. Traveller. 

19. Channel. 

20. Forestay with the foresail furled 
to it. 

21. Bobstay. 

22. Topping-lifts. 

23. Topping-lift blocks. 

24. Main-sheet. 

25. 25. Peak halyards. 

26. Jib halyards. 

27. Cable. 

28. Fore-sheet. 



PLATE XLV. 



The vessel going down the harbour with all sails set, steering 
south, before a light breeze. 



1. Gaff topsail. 

2. Foresail. 

3. Mainsail. 

4. Tack tricing line. 

5. Peak line, or signal halyards. 

6. 7. 8. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd reefs. 
9. 9. 9. Reef-earings. 



10. 10. 10. Cringles. 

11. Balance reef. 

12. Anchor stock. 

13. "Windlass. 

14. Foresheet horse. 

15. Main hatch. 

16. Companion and binnacle. 



PLATE XLVI. 



The vessel outside the harbour, steering east, with a smart 
breeze on the larboard beam. 



1. Jib. 

2. Foresail. 



3. Anchor. 

4. Eyebolt of the bowsprit shrouds. 



PLATE XLVII. 

The vessel trying for the harbour in a heavy gale, close to the 
wind as she can lay, on the starboard tack, under a reefed main- 
sail and foresail, bowsprit reefed, and topmast lowered. 



1 



122 



RIDING. 



The recent practice has been to carry the foot rather more 
forward than is represented in our Plates, approaching in this 
respect, to the ancient position, as seen in the Elgin marbles, &c. 

A Parisian bit, which is attached to the mouth of the horse, 
without a headstall, has been lately used. It is, however, appli- 
cable only to horses, on account of its being retained in the 
mouth by means of the side tusks, which mares do tfot possess. 
It is composed of a semicircular bar of iron, which goes under 
the chin, to which its concavity applies ; while a short bar, firmly 
attached to one of its ends, passes nearly half-way through the 
mouth. Through the other end of the semicircle is a hole, into 
which, when the bit is on, must be screwed a bolt, similar to the 
one just described. These two bolts, it is easily understood, 
pass behind the tusks, and nearly meet in the centre of the 
mouth.* 

THE HORSE AND EQUIPMENTS. 

Plates XLYIII. and XLIX. give better ideas of the horse and 
his equipments than the longest and most detailed description. 
The reader will therefore examine them in succession. We have 
here only to add those circumstances as to the equipment of the 
horse, which could not be communicated by that otherwise 
briefer and more impressive method. 

The shoes of a horse have much to do with his, and conse- 
quently with his rider's, comfort. It is therefore important to 
know that he is properly shod. To effect this, the shoe should 
be fitted to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe. 

Neither heel nor frog should be pared more than merely to . 
take off what is ragged ; for no reproduction takes place here, 
as in the case of the hoof. Farriers ruin nearly all horses by 
* The Saddle {Fig. 1).— a, pommel: b, cantle ; c } panel ; d, flaps ; e, stirrup 
leather ; /, girths. 

Bridles (Big. 2) — a, b, headstall with the cheekstraps ; c, do. of the curb ; 
d, do. of the bridoon or snaffle passing- through it over the poll ; e, nosetrap 
(seldom found in any but military bridles) , /, throatlash. Fig. 3. A twisted 
snaffle-bit. Fig. 4. A plain snaffle-bit. Fig. 5. A Weymouth curb, with 
chain and chainstrap (a) attached. Fig. 6. A common curb-bit, with the 
upset in the mouthpiece. 



THE HORSE AND EQUIPMENTS. 



123 



doing otherwise. Indeed, they are not to be trusted with this 
operation, which, after shoeing, any gentleman may perform 
with his pocket-knife. The sole of the foot must not be hol- 
lowed out, but only the outer wall pared flat or even with the 
sole, and most at the toe. Nor, above all things, ought the 
farrier's finishing rasp all round the edge of the horn immedi- 
ately above the shoe to be permitted. Neither ought nails to 
be driven far backward towards the heel, where the horn is softer 
and more sensible, especially at the inner quarter. When a 
horse has a high heel, the foot, except the frog, may be pared 
flat, but not hollowed out or opened. When a horse has a low 
heel, the foot should be pared only at the toes. 

It is common to allow the fore part or toe of the hoof to grow 
long, thereby throwing the horse much on his heels. This posi- 
tion is unnatural, because, were the horse in a state of nature, 
without shoes, the toe, from constant contact with the ground, 
would be worn down to its proper level with the heel. This 
growth, then, of the fore part of the hoof, by throwing him on 
his heels, renders them tender, and causes lameness : while the 
foot, not being flat on the ground, also strains tne ligaments of 
the fetlock joint. These evils may be obviated by doing as 
nature directs — by cutting away the toe to the proper level with 
the heel, so as to allow the foot to bear flat upon the ground. 
When a horse has a short pastern, he should have a short shoe, 
because a long one would compel him to bring his heel more 
backward than the unpliableness of his pastern would easily 
admit. 

The saddle should be proportioned to the size of the horse. 
Before, the bearings should be clear of the plate bone ; behind, 
they should not extend further than within four inches of the 
hips; and their pressure should be equal on every part intended 
to be touched. The closer the saddle then comes the better, if 
neither the weight of the rider nor settling of the panel can 
possibly injure the withers or chine. Before mounting, the 
rider should examine whether the saddle, girths, straps, bits, 
bridle, &c, are all good and well fixed. 



124 



RIDING. 



When the saddle is on the horse, the lowest part of the seat 
should rather be behind its centre, as it is there that the weight 
of the body should fall, and by that means the thighs can keep 
their proper position. The best test of the adaptation of the 
seat is, when the rider, without stirrups or effort, easily falls into 
his proper place in the saddle. 

Stirrups should not be used until the pupil is capable of riding 
without them. Their proper length is when the upper edge of 
the horizontal bar reaches a finger's breadth below the inner 
ankle-bone. When the feet are in the stirrups, the heels should 
be about two inches lower than the toes. No more than the 
natural weight of the limbs should be thrown upon them. It is 
by an accurate position, and an easy play of the ankle and in- 
step, that the stirrup is retained, so as to slip neither forward 
nor backward, even if the toe be raised for a moment 

The position on horseback with stirrups differs from that 
without them only in this, that the thigh being, by the stirrup, 
relieved from the weight of the leg and foot, the knee is slightly 
bent, and rather before the lines which these form in the posi- 
tion without stirrups. In hussar riding, hunting, &c, the breadth 
of four fingers should intervene between the fork and the saddle 
when the rider stands up. 

Spurs should never be used but by an accomplished rider. 
When it is necessary to employ them, they should be applied a 
few inches behind the girth, as low as possible, and with the 
lightest touch capable of producing the effect. 

As to the bridle, in order to give the greatest possible ease to 
the snaffle, a large and polished bit is necessary. Most bits are 
too small and long, bend back over the bars of the horse's jaw, 
work like pincers, and cut his mouth. 

To give the greatest degree of severity, the bit, while hot, is 
twisted into a spiral form, so as to present to the jaw a rough 
and sharp surface, capable of pressing the bars or lips with 
greater or less severity. The degrees of punishment which this 
bit is capable of inflicting are generally sufficient for all the pur- 
poses of correction. It is therefore best to ride with a snaffle. 



THE HORSE AND EQUIPMENTS. 125 

and to use a curb only occasionally when absolutely necessary. 
In all cases, the rider should observe that the horse is furnished 
with a bit proper for him. If too light, it may have the effect 
already described. If too heavy, it may incline him to carry the 
head low, or to rest upon the hand, which jockeys call " making 
use of a fifth leg/' The simplest and most useful of the curb 
kind is the Weymouth bit, which consists of a strong plain 
mouth-piece of uniform thickness, without any upset, but merely 
a curve forwards, to give ease to the tongue. 

The centre of the reins should be accurately marked ; and, 
when both reins are held in one hand, and the near rein has to 
pass under the little finger, and over the fore-finger, on the out- 
side of the off-rein, the latter should be held about half an inch 
shorter, and the centre should be brought proportionally towards 
the left. In adjusting the bridle on the horse's head, the head- 
stall, parallel to and above the cheekbone, must have its length 
so regulated as to permit the mouth-piece of the curb to rest on 
the bars, an inch above the lower tushes in horses, and about 
two inches above the corner teeth in mares, which have no 
tushes. The nose-band, lying under the snaffle headstall, must 
be buckled so loosely that a finger can pass freely under it and 
over the horse's nose. The bit of the snaffle must be higher, 
but not so much so as to wrinkle the corner of the mouth. The 
throat-lash must be buckled rather loose. The mane is usually 
cut close under the headstall ; the finger clears any part of the 
foretop interfering with it ; and the remainder, when combed 
smooth, is put either over or under the front. 

If the rider uses a curb, he should make it a rule to hook on 
the chain himself; for the quietest horse may bring his rider 
into danger, if the curb hurt him. The curb-chain must pass 
under the snaffle. The rider should, therefore, put his right 
hand under the snaffle reins to take hold of the curb-chain, and 
introducing two fingers of his left within the cheek of the bit, 
and aiding these with his thumb, take hold of the curb hook. The 
end links of the curb-chain being in his right hand, he should 
turn the chain to the right and under, or as he would a screw, till 



126 



RIDING. 



every link lies flat and smooth, and then, without losing a half 
turn, put that link on the hook which appears to be neither 
tight nor slack. The finger should pass between the horse's 
jaw and curb, which in this case hangs down upon his under 
hp. It is necessary also to see how it operates. If the branch 
has liberty to move forty-five degrees, or to a right angle, it is 
the degree which is in general best. If, however, one link of 
the chain confine it to thirty-five degrees, and if one link lower 
give it fifty-five degrees, then the manner of the horse's carry- 
ing his head must determine which is most proper : if the horse 
naturally carry his nose high, the branch may have fifty-five, if 
he bring his nose in, he should have thirty-five degrees. If 
there be a chain- strap, it must be placed so high on the branch, 
that when passed through the ring in the curb-chain, it may be 
buckled tight enough to prevent the horse lodging the branch 
on his teeth. 

When a horse's head is steady, when he is light in hand, can 
obey its motions with ease, and stop readily, the bit is properly 
adjusted. On the contrary, if he open his mouth as if gagged, 
writhe his jaws, draw his tongue above the mouth-piece, or 
thrust it out sidewise ; if he fear the impression of the bit, have 
no appuy, toss his head up and down, carry it low, and en- 
deavour to force the hand, or refuse to go forward, or run back- 
ward, the bit is not properly adjusted. 

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. 

In mounting, the rider, — presenting himself rather before the 
horse's shoulder, with his left breast towards that shoulder, 
and with his whip or switch in his left hand, — takes, with the 
right hand, the snaffle reins in the centre ; — introduces the little 
finger of the left hand between them from before, the back of 
that hand being towards the horse's head; — places the left 
hand below the right on the neck of the horse, about twelve 
inches from the saddle ; — draws with the right hand the reins 
through the left, and shortens them, till the left has a light and 
equal feeling of both reins on the horse's mouth ; — throws, with 



MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. 



127 



the right hand, the reins to the off side ; — takes, with the same 
hand, a lock of the mane, brings it through the left hand, and 
turns it round the left thumb : — and closes the left hand firmly 
on the mane and reins. 

The right hand, after quitting the mane, lays hold of the left 
stirrup, the fingers being behind, and the thumb in front of it ; 
— the left foot is raised and put into the stirrup as far as the 
ball of it, (Plate L.) ; — the right foot is then moved until the 
rider's face is turned to the side of the horse, and looking across 
the saddle ; while the right hand is placed on the cantle, the 
left knee against the saddle on the surcingle, with the left heel 
drawn back, to avoid touching the horse's side with the toe ; — 
by a spring of the right foot from the instep, not by any pull 
with the right hand, the rider raises himself in the stirrup, the 
knees firm against the saddle, the heels together, but drawn 
back a little, and the body erect, and partially supported by the 
right hand (Plate LI.) ; — the right hand moves from the cantle to 
the pommel, and supports the body ; — the right leg at the same 
time passes clearly over the horse's quarters to the off side ; — 
the right knee closes on the saddle ; the body comes gently into 
it ; — the left hand quits the mane, and the right the pommel. 

The left, or bridle hand, with the wrist rounded outwards, 
is placed opposite the centre of the body, and at three 
inches' distance from it ; — the right hand is dropped by the side 
of the thigh ; — the stirrup is taken instantly with the right foot, 
without the help of hand or eye ; — the clothes are adjusted ; — 
and the whip is exchanged from the left hand to the right, 
being held with the lash upwards, but mclining a little towards 
the left ear of the horse, and never leaving the right hand, 
except while mounting or dismounting, — (Plate LII.) 

The horse is to be accustomed to stand till the rider request 
him to move. The habit of unsteadiness is acquired from 
grooms, who, on going out to water and exercise, throw them- 
selves over a horse from some elevation, and give a kick to the 
animal even before being fairly upon it. If a groom attend at 



128 



RIDING. 



mounting, he ought not to be suffered to touch the reins, but 
only that part of the bridle which comes down the cheek. 

In dismounting, the whip is to be returned into the left 
hand ; — the right hand takes hold of the rein above the left ;— - 
the right foot quits the stirrup ; — the left hand slides forward 
on the rein, to about twelve inches from the saddle, feeling 
the horse's mouth very lightly ; — the right hand, dropping the 
reins to the off side, takes a lock of the mane, brings it through 
the left, and twists it round the left thumb ; — the fingers of the 
left hand close on it ; — the right hand is placed on the pommel ; 
the body being kept erect. The body is supported with the 
right hand and left foot -the right leg is, without touching 
the horse's hind-quarters or the saddle, brought gently to the 
near side, with the heels close, care being take not to bend the 
right knee, lest the spur should touch the horse ; — the right 
hand passes at the same time to the cantle, to preserve the 
balance, as in the act of mounting ; — the body is gently lowered 
until the right toe touches the ground ; — resting on the right 
foot, the left stirrup is quitted, and the left foot placed in line 
with the horse's hoofs ; — the hands remaining as in the former 
motion. Both hands then quit their holds of the mane and 
cantle ; — and the right hand lays hold of the snaffle rein near 
the ring of the bit. 

In mounting without stirrups, — after taking up the reins, 
instead of seizing the mane, the rider lays hold of the pommel 
and cantle, and, by a spring of both legs from the insteps, 
raises the body to the centre of the saddle. By a second spring 
of both arms, the right leg is carried over the horse, and the 
rider enters his proper seat by closing the knees on the saddle, 
and sliding gently into it. 

In dismounting without stirrups, on either side of the horse, 
the rider throws the weight of the body on the hands placed on 
the pommel, and, by a spring, raises the body out of the saddle 
before the leg is brought over the horse. 



THE SEAT. 



129 



THE SEAT. 

The seat must be understood in an extended sense as the 
disposition of the various parts of the body, in conformity with 
the action of the horse ; and its effect is the rider's being firm 
in the saddle, when he might be otherwise thrown forward over 
the horse's head, or backward over his tail. 

The fundamental seat is that intermediate one of which all 
others are modifications, and in which the rider sits when the 
horse is going straight forward, without any bend in his posi- 
tion. In describing this, it is first necessary to consider the 
rider's relation to the horse. — He must sit on that part of the 
animal's body which, as he springs in his paces, is the centre of 
motion : from which, of course, any weight would be most 
difficultly shaken. The place of this seat is that part of the 
saddle into which the rider's body would naturally slide were he 
to ride without stirrups. This seat is to be preserved only by 
a proper balance of his body, and its adaptation to even the 
most violent counteractions of the horse. Turf jockeys neces- 
sarily sit further back, that they may employ the pulls. 

It is necessary to consider the horseman in various parts, and 
to explain their different functions : 1st, the lower part, as be- 
ing here the principal one, namely, the thighs, with the legs as 
dependent on them ; 2dly, the upper part, namely, the body, 
with the arms dependent on it. The thighs, from the fork to 
the knees, are commonly called the immovable parts, and upon 
them the whole attitude depends. They must not wriggle or 
roll, so as either to disturb the horse, or render the seat loose ; 
but they may be relaxed when the horse hesitates to advance. 
The legs occasionally strengthen the hold of the thighs by a grasp 
with the calves ; and they likewise aid, support, and chastise the 
horse. The body, from the fork upwards, must always be in a 
situation to take the corresponding motion, and preserve the 
balance. The position of the arms is dependent on that of the 
body, but they also exercise new functions. 

K 



130 



RIDING. 



As a good seat is the basis of all excellence in riding., we shall 
consider these parts in detail. 

In relation to the thighs, the rider, sitting in the middle of 
the saddle, mnst rest chiefly upon then division, vulgarly called 
the fork, and very slightly upon the hips. The thighs, turned 
inward, must rest flat upon the sides of the saddle, without 
grasping ; for the rider's weight gives sufficient hold, and the 
pressure of the thighs on the saddle would only lift him above 
it. The knees must be stretched down and kept back, so as to 
place the thighs several degrees short of a perpendicular ; but 
no gripe must be made with them, unless there be danger of 
losing all other hold. If the thighs are upon their inner or flat 
side in the saddle, both the legs and the feet will be turned as 
they ought to be. Thus turned, they must be on a hue parallel 
to that of the rider's body, and hang near the horse's sides, but 
must not touch ; yet they may give an additional hold to the 
seat, when necessary, and the calves must act in support of the 
aids of the hands. The heels are to be sunk, and the toes to 
be raised, and as near the horse as the heels, which prevents the 
heel touching the horse. 

As to the body. — The head must be firm, yet free. The 
shoulders thrown back, and kept square, so that no pull of 
the bridle may bring them forward. The chest must be advanced, 
and the small of the back bent a little forward. 

The upper parts of the arms must hang perpendicularly from 
the shoulders, the lower parts at right angles with the upper, so 
as to form a horizontal line from the elbow to the little finger. 
The elbows must be lightly closed to the hips, and, without 
stiffness, kept steady, or they destroy the hand. The wrist must 
be rounded a little outwards. The hands should be about three 
inches from the body, and from the pommel of the saddle, and 
from four to six inches apart ; the thumbs and knuckles point- 
ing towards each other, and the finger nails towards the body.* 

When the rider is in the proper position on horseback with- 

* When in motion round the manege, or the circle, the inward hand, or 
that towards which we turn, is to be a little lower than the outward one. 



THE BALANCE. 



131 



out stirrups, his nose, breast, knee, and instep are nearly in a 
line ; and, with stirrups, his nose, breast, knee, and toe, are in 
a line. — (Place LII.) The man and the horse throughout are to 
be of a piece. When the horse is at liberty, or disunited, as 
it is termed, the rider sits at his ease ; and, as he collects and 
unites his horse, so he collects and unites himself. There must, 
however, be no stiffness of manner, more than in sitting on 
a chair; for it is ease and elegance which distinguish the 
gentleman. 

THE BALANCE. 

The balance in riding preserves the body from that inclination 
to one side or the other which even the ordinary paces of the 
horse, in the trot or gallop, would otherwise occasion. It ac- 
companies and corresponds with every motion of the animal, 
without any employment of strength, and consequently, the 
rider sits so firmly that nothing can move his seat. His skill 
consists essentially in balancing himself on the horse in such a 
manner as not to fetter the animal's movements. To illustrate 
this, if the horse work straight and upright on his legs, the 
body must be in the same upright direction : as the horse moves 
into a trot, the body must be inclined a little more back ; in the 
gallop, also in leaping, or in any violent movements, the body 
must chiefly be kept back ; and, when the horse bends and 
leans, as he does when on a circle, or trotting briskly round a 
corner, the body must lean similarly, or the balance will be 
lost. Throughout the whole, the figure must be pliant to every 
action of the horse ; for the balance can be maintained only by 
as many different positions as he is capable of working in. 

To help his balance, the rider must never take the slightest 
assistance from the reins. Whatever the position of the body, 
the hand must be fixed, and the reins of such a length as to 
feel and support the horse, but never to hold on. To acquire 
the balance, the practice on circles, or the longe, is useful ; 
working equally to both hands, and not using stirrups till the 
pupil has acquired the balance without them. Experience 

k 2 



132 



RIDING. 



proves that the body, if in the manege seat and fundamental 
position, almost involuntarily takes the corresponding motion, 
whether the horse stumbles, rears, springs forward, or kicks. 

THE REIX-HOLD. 

There are various methods of holding the reins, according 
to the style of riding, the design of the rider, and the propen- 
sities of horses. 

In holding the snaffle-reins separately, one rein passes into 
each hand, between the third and fourth fingers, and out of it 
over the fore-finger, where it is held down by the thumb. — 
(Plate LIIL fig. 1.) TThen afterwards further advanced, the 
reins are held in the left hand, as at first taken up ; the left 
rein passing under the little finger, and the right under the 
third finger, both lying smooth through the hand, the super- 
fluous rein hanging over the first joint of the fore-finger, and 
the thumb being placed upon it.* — (Plate LIII. fig. 2.) 

Riders should not throw then right shoulders back, as they 
are apt to do, when they first take the reins in one hand. The 
right arm should hang by the side, with the hand by the side of 
the thigh ; or, if holding the whip, it may be kept a little lower 
than the left, in order not to obstruct the operation of the 
bridle. 

TTe have already said, that we think it best to ride with the 
snaffle alone, and use the curb only occasionally. In this case, 
the curb reins may have a slide upon them, and may hang on 
the pommel of the saddle, or the horse's neck. TThen the rider, 
however, holds the curb as well as the snaffle, having both, as 
is most usual, in the left hand, — while the curb reins are placed 
as above described of the snaffle reins, the snaffle reins are placed 
within them ; that is, the left snaffle rein enters under the 
second, and the right under the first finger, and both pass up 

* Sometimes, however, the right rein is made to enter the hand from above 
over the fore-finger, and crosses the left rein in the palm, where the fingers 
close upon them, a loop or bow being- formed of the residue between the 
hand and body, whence it hangs down.— {Plate LIII. fig. 3.) 



THE REIN-HOLD. 



133 



through the hand, and out of it, over the fore-finger, precisely 
as do the curb reins, except that they lie at first above, then 
within, and lastly, under them. — (Plate LIII. fig. 4.) 

Shifting the reins should be done expertly, without stopping 
the horse, altering the pace, breaking the time, or looking to 
the hands. When the snaffle reins are held in one hand, the 
method of shifting from the left hand is as follows : — Turn the 
thumbs towards each other ; carry the right hand over the left ; 
in place of the little finger of the left hand, put the fore-finger 
of the right hand downwards between the reins ; lay the reins 
smoothly down through the right hand, and place the thumb 
upon the left rein between the first and second joint of the 
fore-finger. — (Plate LIII. fig. 5.) To shift them again into the 
left hand, it is only necessary to carry the left hand over the 
right ; to put the little finger of the left hand downwards be- 
tween the right and left reins ; to place them smoothly upward 
through the hand, and to let the ends hang over the fore -finger, 
as at first.— (Plate LIII. fig. 6.) 

When both curb and snaffle reins are held in the usual 
method, we shift them into the right hand in a similar manner, 
by tmrning the thumbs toward each other ; carrying the right 
hand over the left ; putting the fore-finger of the right hand 
into the place of the little finger of the left ; the second finger 
of the right into the place of the third finger of the left ; and 
the third finger of the right into the place of the second finger 
of the left ; and laying the reins smoothly down through the 
right hand — (Plate LIII. fig. / .) When we shift the reins 
again to the left hand, we put the fingers of the left hand into 
the places we took them from, and turn the reins smoothly 
upward through the hand, and over the fore-finger. — (Plate 
LIII. fig. 8.) 

Separating the reins is sometimes necessary. When a horse 
refuses obedience to one hand, we use two. It is seldom, how- 
ever, necessary to take more than one rein in the right hand ; 
and this is the right rein of the snaffle only. For this purpose, 
the rider turns the back of his right hand upwards, puts the 



134 



RIDING. 



first three fingers over the snaffle rein, receives it between his 
little and third fingers, lets the superfluous end hang over the 
fore-finger, with the thumb upwards, as he does the bridle hand. 
(Plate LIII. fig. 9.) 

Adjusting the reins is shortening or lengthening them, wholly 
or partially, as occasion may require. To adjust the whole, we 
take the superfluous reins that hang over the fore-finger of the 
left hand into the right, so that with that hand we support the 
horse, and feel every step he takes; and we then open the 
fingers of the left hand so as to slip it up and down the reins 
smoothly and freely, and thereby adjust them to our pleasure. 

To shorten the curb rein, and lengthen the snaffle, we take in 
the right hand the centre of the curb rein, that hangs over the 
fore-finger, slip the whole of the reins too long, pass the left 
hand down them, and feel with the fingers whether both the 
curb reins are of equal length, before we grasp with the left 
hand, or quit with the right. Similarly, we shorten the snaffle, 
and lengthen the curb, by taking in the right hand the centre of 
the snaffle that hangs over the fore-finger, and proceeding in the 
same way. 

When any single rein wants shortening, we apply the right 
hand to that part which hangs over the fore-finger, and draw it 
tighter. When the reins are separate, or occupy both hands, 
and want adjusting, we bring the hands together to assist each 
other; remembering that the inner hand, or that which supports 
the attitude the horse works in, is not to depart from its situa- 
tion, so as to occasion any disorder, but that the outer hand is 
to be brought to the inner, for the purpose of adjusting them. 

THE CORRESPONDENCE. 

To have a correct notion of the manner in which the hand 
operates on the horse's mouth, it must be understood that the 
reins, being held as described, are collected to such definite 
length, that bracing the muscles of the hand would rein the 
horse back, and easing them permit him freely to advance; the 
hand, for preserving a medium effect on the mouth, being only 



THE ACTION. 



135 



half shut, and the knuckles near the wrist nearly open. The 
hand. then, heing connected to the reins, the reins to the hit, 
the bit operating in the curb on the bars, and in the snaffle on 
the lips, the rider cannot move the hand, and scarcely even a 
finger, without the horse's mouth being more or less affected, 
This is called the correspondence. 

If, moreover, the hand be held steady, as the horse advances 
in the trot, the ringers will feel, by the contraction of the reins, 
a slight tug, occasioned by the cadence of every step ; and this 
tug, by means of the correspondence, is reciprocally felt in the 
horse's mouth. This is called the appuy 

While this relation is preserved between the hand and mouth, 
the horse is in perfect obedience to the rider, and the hand 
directs him, in any position or action, with such ease, that the 
horse seems to work by the will of the rider rather than by the 
power of his hand. This is called the support. 

Now, the correspondence or effective communication between 
the hand and mouth, — the appuy, or strength of the operation 
in the mouth, — the support, or aid, the hand gives in the posi- 
tion or action, — are always maintained in the manege and ail 
united paces. Without these, a horse is under no immediate 
control, as in the extended gallop, or at full speed, where it may 
require a hundred yards to pull before we can stop him. 

THE ACTION. 

The degree of correspondence, appuy, and support, depends, 
in horses otherwise similar, on the relative situation of the hand. 
The act of raising the rider's hand increases his power; and 
this, raising the horse's head, diminishes his power. The de- 
pressing of the rider's hand, on the contrary, diminishes his 
power; and this, depressing the horse's head, increases his power. 
On these depend the unitedness or disunitedness in the action of 
the horse. 

A writer on this subject (Ber anger, we believe) gives the fol- 
lowing useful illustration : — n If a garter were placed across the 
pupil's forehead, and a person behind him held the two ends in 



136 



RIDING. 



a horizontal direction, the pupil, if he stood quite upright, could 
not pull at the person's hand, nor endure the person's hand to 
pull at him. without falling or running backwards. 93 This is the 
situation of a horse when united. 

Accordingly, when the pupil felt the hand severe, or expected 
it to pull, he would guard against it by bending the body, pro- 
jecting the head, and planting one foot behind. This is the 
situation of a horse when disunited, or defending himself against 
the heaviness of the hand. Hence the perpetual pull of a timid 
rider, or a heavy insensible hand, cannot keep a horse united, 
because the horse cannot then bear its severity. Thus heavy 
hands make hard-mouthed horses : and hence it is in this con- 
dition that we generally find horses, for the best broke become 
sc. if ridden a few times by an ignorant horseman. In such 
cases, the horse makes the rider support the weight both of his 
head and neck, or goes on his shoulders, and is apt to stumble. 

If, then, the appuy be heavy, from the head being carried too 
low, and the horse not sufficiently united, the rider must raise 
the hand, and let the fingers, by moving, rather invite than 
compel the head, or more properly the neck, to rise, for the 
object is to bring in the head by raising the neck, the legs at 
the same time pressing the haunches under. By these means, 
the horse will be united, and the appuy will be lightened. Should 
the hand, however, be too confining to the horse when united, 
he may become so balanced on his haunches that he can neither 
disunite himself nor advance one step; and, shoidd the rider 
then press him without yielding or dropping the hand, he woidd 
compel him to rear. 

Such are the two extremes, where the horse is disunited, and 
where he is too much united. The intermediate effect of the 
hand and heel must be acquired by practice. 

THE HAND. 

To a masterly hand, firmness, gentleness, and lightness, are 
very properly described as being essentially necessary. 

Firmness of the hand does not, however, do more than cor- 



THE HAND. 



137 



respond exactly with the feeling in the horse's mouthy unless 
the horse attempts to get the ascendancy, to abandon that deli- 
cate correspondence producing the appuy, and keeping him 
under the strictest obedience, and to make a dull or insensible 
pull on the hand. To frustrate these attempts, the hand is kept 
firm, and the fingers braced; and, should the horse plant his 
head low to endure this, the fingers are moved, the reins shaken, 
&c, to raise the head and divert him from his purpose ; or, if 
this be unavailing, the hand is yielded that the reins may become 
slack, and a snatch is given in an upward direction, which will 
not only make him raise his head, but will deter him from putting 
it down again. 

Gentleness of the hand relaxes a little of its firmness, and 
mitigates the feeling between the hand and the horse's mouth, 
without passing, however, from one extreme to another. Light- 
ness of the hand lessens still more the feeling between the rider's 
hand and the horse's mouth, and consists in a slight alternate 
feeling and easing of the bridle, regulated by the motion of the 
horse; for, if the appuy were always in the same degree, it 
would heat the mouth, dull the feeling, and render the horse's 
bars callous. The rider must also distinguish whether the horse 
wishes to disengage himself from restriction, or wants a mo- 
mentary liberty to cough, to move if cramped, to dislodge a 
fly, &c. 

The curb, if used, requires always a light hand to manage it ; 
and the horse should never be put to do any thing in a curb at 
which he is not perfectly ready. The curb is adapted for acting 
in a direct line only : the snaffle should be used in all other 
cases. Still, as to all these qualities, the transitions must be 
gradual. Were the rider, passing over that degree of restraint 
which is derived from the easy or gentle hand, to go at once 
from a firm to a slack one, he would deprive his horse of the 
support he trusted to, and precipitate him on his shoulders. On 
the contrary, were he to pass from the slack to the tight rein all 
at once, he would give a violent shock to the horse's mouth. 

All the operations of the hand, then, should be firm, gentle, 



138 



RIDING. 



and light ; and in these, the fingers and wrist alone must act. 
Certain liberties called descents of the hand, are also taken with 
well-bred horses. These are made three different ways : — by 
advancing the arm a little, but not the shoulder, still keeping 
the usual length of rein, or by dropping the knuckles directly 
and at once upon the horse's neck ; — by taking the reins in 
the right hand, about four fingers' breadth above the left, and 
letting thou slide through the left, dropping the right hand at 
the same time upon the horse's neck ; — and by taking the end 
of the reins in the right hand, quitting them entirely with the 
left, and letting the end of them fall upon the horse's neck. 
These graceful freedoms must never be used but with great 
caution, when the horse is quite together, and in hand ; and 
the rider, by throwing back his body, must counterbalance the 
weight of the horse upon his haunches. 

There are still minuter rules belonging to this head ; for in- 
stance, both snaffle reins being in one hand, and that in the 
first position, — if we open the first and second fingers, we 
slacken the right rein ; — if we open the little finger, we slacken 
the left rein ; — if we shut the hand entirely, and immediately 
open it again, we lessen the tension of both reins. By these 
methods, we may relieve and freshen the two bars in which the 
feeling and appuy resides. So also in the second descent of the 
hand. While the right hand holds the reins, we may slide the 
left hand up and down these in that degree of appuy which belongs 
to the easy and slack hand : during which the horse will endea- 
vour to preserve that mutual sensation between the mouth and 
the hand, which makes him submit with pleasure to constraint. 
By this play of the rein and movement of the bit to avoid 
pressure in one continued way, the horse's head is kept high, 
and his neck and crest are raised. 

THE GUIDANCE OR AIDS. 

The modes of guiding the horse are called aids, because they 
not onlv direct, but assist him to execute. They also check 



THE GUIDANCE OR AIDS. 



139 



liim in acting contrarily. These aids are certain positions of 
the hand, body, legs, and sometimes of the switch or whip. The 
hand is so far the principal of these, that the others are some- 
rimes called accompaniments, as only giving power and efficacy 
to the hand. 

Aids of the Hand. 

A horse can move four different ways — forward, to the right, 
to the left, and backward ; but he cannot perform these motions 
unless the hand of the rider makes four corresponding motions. 
There are accordingly five different positions for the hand, in- 
cluding the general one from which the other four proceed. 

The five Positions when one Rein is held in each Hand. 

In the first position, the reins pass up between the third and 
fourth fingers of each hand, their ends are thrown over the 
fore-fingers, the thumbs are closed on them, and the fingers are 
shut : — the hands being held as already described in treating 
of the seat. The second position consists of a slight relaxation 
of the preceding, and permits the horse to advance. . The third 
position shortens the right rein rather upward, and turns the 
horse to the right. The fourth position shortens the left rein 
rather upward, and turns the horse to the left ; and the fifth 
position shortens both reins, and stops or reins the horse 
backwards. 

The Jive Positions when the Reins are held in one Hand. 

The aids of the hand, as forming these positions, when the 
reins are held in one hand, may be very simply given by a 
little extending, or bending the wrist, to make the horse advance, 
or go backward, — and by slightly carrying the hand to the 
right or to the left, and in both cases rather upward, to make 
the horse turn in these directions. 

The Tivistings of the Bridle Hand. 

Several modifications of the rules already given occur. We 
do not, however, approve of these positions, as they, in a great 



140 



RIDING. 



measure, reverse and destroy the natural aids of the hand, by 
leaving the right rein slack in the turn to the right, and the 
left rein slack in the turn to the left. Indeed, they could not 
possibly be obeyed by the horse, were it not that, on this point, 
he seems to have more understanding than his rider, and draws 
his conclusions as to the latter's intentions, not from the incon- 
sistent action of his hand, but from the more natural accom- 
panying aids of his body and legs. Fortunately, however, these 
twistings of the bridle hand, though always taught, are, we 
believe, rarely practised. 

We give these positions here, only in compliance with custom. 

In the first position the under surface of the fore-arm and 
hand forms a horizontal line from the elbow to the joint of the 
little finger ; the elbow is lightly closed to the hips ; the wrist 
is rounded ; the knuckles are kept directly above the neck of 
the horse, the hand being at three inches from the body, and as 
much from the pommel of the saddle; the nails are turned 
towards the body, the little finger being nearer to it than the 
others ; the reins, in entering the hand, are separated by the 
little finger ; and the thumb is placed flat upon them as they 
pass out over the fore-finger. 

In the second position the hand is yielded to the horse by 
turning the nails downward, so as to carry the thumb nearer 
the body, and the little finger further from it, yet somewhat 
obliquely, for the thumb passes nearly into the place where the 
knuckles were in the first position, the nails being now directly 
above the horse's neck. This permits the horse to advance. 

In the third position the hand, leaving the first, is turned 
upside down, so that the thumb is carried out to the left, and 
the little finger brought into the right. This carries the opera- 
tion of the reins nearly three inches more to the right, by which 
the left reins press the neck, the right reins are slack, and the 
horse is turned to the right. 

In the fourth position the hand, leaving the first, the back is 
turned upward, so that the little finger is carried out to the left, 
and the thumb brought in to the right. This carries the opera- 



THE GUIDANCE OR AIDS. 



141 



tion of the reins to the left, by which the right reins press the 
neck, the left reins are slack, and the horse is turned to the left. 

In the fifth position, quitting the first, the wrist is rounded, 
the nails turned upwards, and the knuckles towards the horse's 
neck. This stops him, or compels him to go backward. 

These aids, however, when the reins are held in one hand, 
are not so effective as those where the reins are separate. 

Aids of the Body. 

To aid the second position of the hand, and cause the horse 
to advance, the body may be thrown a little forward, but not 
so as to press heavily on his fore-parts. To aid the third and 
fourth positions of the hand, a mere turn of the body is suffi- 
cient. — Thus, in entering an angle, it is only necessary to turn the 
body imperceptibly toward the corner, just as if the rider intended 
to go into it himself ; his body then turning to the right or 
left, his hand must necessarily turn likewise, and the leg of the 
side on which he turns will infallibly press against the horse, 
and aid him. In coming out of a corner, it is only necessary to 
turn the body again, the hand will follow it, and the other leg, 
approaching the horse, will put his croupe into the corner, in 
such a manner that it will follow the shoulders, and be upon the 
same hue. — The same motion of the body is likewise necessary 
to turn entirely to the right or left. To aid the fifth position 
of the hand, and make the horse go backward, the body must 
be throw T n gently back, and the hand will go with it. 

Aids of the Legs. 

To aid the second position of the hand, and make the horse 
advance, the legs must be closed. Even when a horse stands 
till, the legs held near him will keep him on the watch, and 
with the slightest upward motion of the bridle, he will raise his 
head and show his forehead to advantage. To aid the third 
position of the hand, and turn to the right, the right leg must 
determine the croupe to the left, and facilitate the action of the 
shoulder, which the hand had turned to the right. To aid the 



142 



RIDING. 



fourth position of the hand, and turn to the left, the left leg: 
must determine the croupe to the right. In making a change 
to the right, the left leg confines the croupe, so that it must 
follow the shoulders. In changing again to the left, the right 
leg acts similarly. To aid the fifth position of the hand, and 
stop the horse, while he is held in, the legs must be genth 
brought to the sides. 

The aids of the legs have their degrees progressively increas- 
ing, thus : — the leg being brought nearer the side is the 
lightest; placing the leg further back, with the toe- tinned out, 
is the next ; a touch with the calf of the leg, is the third ; a 
stroke with it, having the toe kept up firmly, that the muscles 
of the leg may be hard, is the fourth ; and the strongest is the 
scratch, which, when the legs are laid on hard without effect, is 
given by dropping the toe, when, if the spur be properly placed, 
the rowel will scratch the horse's side, and this is succeeded by 
giving the spin sharply. Aids with the whip are also used to 
give greater effect to the heel. These are gentle taps on the 
hind quarters, and sometimes on the shoulders. When given 
on the near side, the hand is either applied behind the back, 
with the whip held by the fingers like a pen, the lash being 
downwards, or across the bridle-hand before, the whip being 
held with the lash upwards. 

ANIMATIONS, SOOTHINGS, AND CORRECTIONS. 

Animations proceed from the hand, the leg, the whip, or the 
tongue 3 those of the hand and of the legs have been described 
among the aids. Animations of the whip are mild taps to 
quicken the horse, or, if the lash is upwards, switching it in the 
air. Those of the leg and whip threaten punishment ; and 
accordingly, with sluggish horses, both may be necessary. The 
animation of the tongue is produced by placing the tongue flat 
against the roof of the mouth, and suddenly displacing the 
posterior part of it by drawing the air laterally between 
it and the palate. This noise is animating to the horse; 



ANIMATIONS, SOOTHTNGS, AND CORRECTIONS. 143 

but. if too much continued, or too frequent, its effect is 
destroyed. 

Sootl lings are the reverse of animations, and are used to 
dispel the fears of horses, and to give them confidence. The 
voice soothes by soft and mild tones ; the hand, by gentle 
patting, or stroking : the body and legs, by relinquishing all 
unnecessary firmness, and sitting easy. A horseman should 
have perfect command of his temper, as well as invincible 
patience and perseverance, to make the horse comprehend and 
perform. He must demand but little the first time ; he will 
be more readily obeyed the next ; and he may increase his 
demands as the horse improves in habit and temper. 

Corrections are given either with the spurs or switch, or by 
keeping the horse in a greater degree of subjection. In these 
a good horseman endeavours rather to work upon the mmd 
than the body of the horse. The corrections which render a 
horse most obedient, and yet dishearten him least, are not 
severe, but rather oppose him by restraint, and make him do 
directly the contrary. If, for example, he do not go off readily, 
or if he be sluggish, make him go sidewise, sometimes to one 
hand, sometimes the other, then drive him forward. — If he go 
forward too fast, moderate the aids, and make him go back- 
ward more or less according to his conduct. — If he be disorderly 
and turbulent, walk him straight forward, with head in and 
croupe out. 

THien correction is given with the whip, it should be with 
strength ; the lash being upwards, the arm lifted high, and the 
whip applied behind the girths round the belly : or it may be 
given forward, over the shoulders, between the fore-legs. 
Should the horse kick at the application of the whip to his 
flank or quarter, the rider must instantly apply it smartly, and 
must repeat it more sharply, should he kick at that. By this, 
he may be made sensible of his fault. 

To give a horse both spurs properly, the rider must change 
the posture of his legs, and, bending his knee, strike him with 
them at once, quickly and firmly. Some horses disregard the 



144 



RIDING. 



whip, but fly at the spurs ; others disregard the spurs, and are 
terrified at the whip; the rider consequently will apply that 
which is most likely to produce the desired effect. When, 
however, the whip or spurs are applied two or three times 
sharply to restive horses without effect, the rider must desist, 
and try other methods. 

, THE WALK. 

The rider should not suffer his horse to move till his clothes 
are adjusted, and whip shifted, when, collecting his reins, and 
taking one in his right hand, he must close his legs, to induce 
the horse to move slowly forward in the walk. If he wish to 
increase the pace, the pressure of the knees must be increased. 
When the horse moves, the legs must resume their former posi- 
tion, — the hands remain perfectly steady, — and the body yield 
to the movement. 

As to character, the walk is the pace performed with the least 
exertion ; only one leg at a time being off the ground, and 
three on. In this pace, accordingly, four distinct beats are 
marked, as each foot comes to the ground in the following 
order : — first the off fore foot, next the near hind foot, then 
the near fore foot, and lastly, the off hind foot.* 

The perfection of the walk consists in its being an animated 
quick step, measuring exact distances, and marking a regular 
time, by putting the feet flat to the ground. Its excellence 
depends on that uniting of the horse which supports his head 
and raises his feet, without shortening or retarding the step ; 
and that animation which quickens the step and sharpens the 
beats without altering the time or the action. 

In performance, if the rider do not support the horse suffi- 
ciently, his head will be low, and his walk slovenly : if he 
support him too much, he will shorten his step so that he cannot 

* The amble may perhaps be considered as a natural pace, as most foals, 
following their dams, amble more or less to keep up with them. The differ- 
ence between the walk and the amble is,, that two legs of a side are raised in 
the latter at the same instant. 



THE WALK. 



145 



walk freely. If the rider do not animate him, he will not exert 
himself: if he animate him too much, he will trot. If the 
horse trot when the rider designs him to walk, he will find 
either his hand or the degree of animation communicated by 
the whip, tongue, legs, or bracing of the body, too high, and 
this he must instantly modify, as well as check the horse. 
(Plate LIV. illustrates the Walk.) 

Turns in the Walk. 

Turns in general should be made slowly ; and all the aids 
should combine in producing them. 

In performance, the hand to which we turn, or inner hand, is 
to be a little below the outer one, and the inner rein held with 
double the force of the outer one, which is to be exerted by the 
little finger pulling gently upwards and towards the body, 
while the outer hand retains a steady hold of the outer rein. 
At the same time, the legs, by a slight pressure with the calves, 
must support the horse, keep him up to the bridle, make him 
bring his haunches under him, and obey the leading rein. The 
pressure of the inward leg alone would make him throw his 
haunches too much outwards. All this is to be done in pro- 
portion to the effect meant to be produced ; and great precision 
and delicacy are required in the execution. 

Wheels may also be briefly noticed here. A horse may wheel 
or turn on his own ground, on three pivots, — on his centre, on 
his fore feet, and on his hind feet. In all these, the hand 
directs all before the horseman, and the heel all behind him. In 
wheeling on centres, the hand and heel operate together — the 
hand leading the shoulder round — the leg directing the croupe, 
by which means, in going about, the fore feet describe one half- 
circle, and the hind feet another. Here the aids of the hand, 
body, and legs, must exactly correspond; and the degree of 
appuy must be merely such as will carry its aid into effect ; for, 
if the appuy is too weak, the horse will advance over his ground, 
and if too strong, he will retire from it. 

On terminating the wheel or quarter circle, the about or 

L 



146 



RIDING. 



half-circle, or the about and about, or whole circle, the hand, 
the body, and leg. must instantly resume then proper position. 
The wheel on the fore, and that on the hind feet, are still more 
rarely of use m common practice. 

Stops in the Woa'k. 

Horses and horsemen generally stop by a gradual cessation of 
action, in a time and distance which depend on circumstances. 
As to character, however, the stop, when properly performed, 
is an instant cessation of advance, without any previous indi- 
cation. 

TThen the stop is properly performed, it shows the great 
superiority of the rider's hand over the horse. It confirms him 
in obedience, unites him. supples the haunches, and bends the 
houghs. Much mischief, however, may occur from a too fre- 
quent or injudicious practice of it. The perfection of the stop 
consists in the action ceasing at the finish of a cadence,, without 
breaking the previous time : and in the horse being so balanced 
on his haunches, and so animated, that, with liberty given, he 
can advance with the same rapidity as before. 

In performance, the time to be seized is when the first part of 
the cadence is coming to the ground; so that its finish com- 
pletes the stop. If tliis is not done, the cadence will be broken, 
and the stop rendered irregular. At such a moment, the stop 
is performed by the rider bracing his arms to his body, holding 
both reins equally and firmly, drawing the fingers towards the 
body, closing for an instant both legs, to press the horse up to 
the bridle, and throwing the body back, with precisely such 
strength of all the muscles as is proportioned to the effect: all 
this being done at the same instant, and making but one motion. 
If the rider do not close his legs, the horse may not bring his 
haunches under, the stop will be on the shoulders, and its effect 
will be destroyed. 

If, in stopping, a horse toss up his nose, or force the hand, the 
bridle hand must be kept, low and firm, no liberty must be 
given, his neck must be pressed with the right hand till he has 



THE TROT. 



147 



brought down his nose, and immediately all his bridle may be 
given him. (Plate LV. illustrates the Stop.) If the horse has 
not readily obeyed, he should be made to go backwards, as a 
proper punishment for the fault. 

Going Backward in the Walk. 

The action of the horse when he goes backward is to bend 
his haunches, to have always one of his hinder legs under his 
belly, on which to rest and balance himself, and to push his 
croupe backward. In performance, the horse's head must be 
steady and right, his body gathered up under him, he must be 
upon his haunches, and his feet be even. To aid him in this, 
there should be an equal and steady feeling of both reins ; the 
hand must be held centrically, and kept from rising, with the 
knuckles a little down, inviting the horse to back ; the body 
bent a little forward, with the belly drawn in; and the legs 
gently pressing the sides of the horse, in order to keep him up 
to the bridle, and to prevent him from swerving. 

The instant he yields to the hand, the body and hand yield to 
the horse, that he may recover his balance ; and he may then 
be pressed to back again. If either the deviation of the hand 
from its centrical situation, or any other cause, make the croupe 
go off the line in an opposite direction, the heel must support 
and direct him. Thus, should the croupe traverse to the right, 
the right leg must direct ; and, to assist, the hand must be 
carried a little to the right ; but this must be done with delicacy, 
lest the croupe be thrown too much to the left. Here the hand 
and the heel change their functions ; the hand compels the 
action, and the heel directs it. 

THE TROT. 

As to the character of the trot, when we urge the horse to 
proceed faster than he can by moving one leg after the other 
in the walk, we oblige him to take up two at a time in the trot. 
Here the off fore-foot and the near hind-foot give one beat ; 
and the near fore-foot and the off hind-foot give another ; so 



14S 



RIDING. 



that there are two legs crosswise off the ground, and two legs 
on; the beats being sharp and quick, in proportion to the degree 
of animation and extension. 

The perfection of the trot consists in its suppleness, giving 
the horse a free nse of his limbs ; in its union, distributing his 
labour more equally, his fore legs having more to sustain than 
the hind, especially when he is disimited, or on the shoulders ; 
and in its action, which should be true and equal, the liberty 
of the fore-quarters not exceeding the hind, nor the hind the 
fore — the knee being up, the haunches bent, springy, and pliant, 
the step measuring exact distances, and marking a regular time. 
In the trot, there is a leading foot, either right or left, by which 
the corresponding side is a little more advanced than the other. 
This leading with either foot is valuable, as, in horses that have 
not been thus suppled, if chance or fatigue makes them change 
their leg for that which they are not accustomed to* the action 
is stiff, confined, and irregular. 

Kinds of Trot, 

There are three kinds of trot — the extended, the supple, and 
the even. 

In the extended trot, the horse steps out without retaining 
himself, being quite straight, and going directly forwards. 

In the supple trot, at every motion he bends and plays the 
joints of his shoulders, knees, and feet. 

In the even trot, he makes all his limbs and joints move so 
equally and exactly, that his limbs never cover more ground one 
than the other, nor at one time more than at another. 

These three kinds of trot depend upon each other. TTe can- 
not pass a horse to the supple trot without having first worked 
him to the extended trot ; and we can never arrive at the even 
and equal trot without having practised the supple. To pass 
from the extended to the supple trot, the horse must be gently 
and by degrees held in. When, by exercise, he has attained 
sufficient suppleness to manage his limbs readily, he must 
insensibly be held in more and more, till he is led to the equal 
trot. 



THE TROT. 



149 



The Trot in particular. 

In performance the rider must apply, for an instant, 
both legs to his horse's sides ; and at the same time raise the 
fore hand by drawing the lower finger on each side rather 
upwards and towards the body, avoiding all jerks or sudden 
motions. 

During the trot he must sit close to the saddle, preserving 
his seat by the balance of his body, and not by the pressure of 
the knees ; he must neither rise nor stand in the stirrups ; his 
body must incline a little backwards ; the whole figure must 
partake of and accompany the movements of the horse ; and 
he must keep the hands up in their proper situation, steady and 
pliant, preserving a due correspondence, and just appuy. If 
the action be too rapid, it must be checked by strengthening 
the hand. If the action be too slow, it may be quickened by 
easing the fingers, and giving more animation. 

To give more animation, and encourage the horse to put his 
foot out freely, the rider must support his fore hand up, and 
his haunches under, by a touch of the fingers, the excitement 
of the tongue, the switch of the whip, or the application of the 
legs, varied so as not to lose then effect. If the action be not 
sufficiently united, that also must be corrected. 

To unite the horse, the reins must be collected, and the 
head raised. By bringing his haunches under him, he may 
be pressed up to the bridle by the aid of the legs; care being 
taken that this is not done hastily or violently. He must 
not, however, be confined in the hand, in expectation of 
raising him, and fixing his head in a proper place, as by this 
means his bars and mouth would soon grow callous. 

The most certain sign of a horse's trotting well is, that 
when, in his trot, the rider presses him a little, he offers to 
gallop. If the horse gallop when he ought not, the waist 
should be pushed forwards toward the pommel of the saddle, 
and a bend or hollow at the same time be made in the loins. 



150 



RIDING. 



Turns, Stops, §c. i?i the Trot. 

As to turns, seeing that the operations directed to be per- 
formed at the walk are to be practised in the trot, nothing 
further need be said of them. As stops are required to coin- 
cide with cadences, it must be observed, that the first part of the 
cadence in the trot is performed by the two feet that lead ; and 
that the conclusion of the cadence is performed by the two feet 
that follow, and this should complete the stop. The rider should 
occasionally alter the measure of the action, by strengthening 
the hand, and at the same time keeping up a sufficient degree 
of animation to prevent the horse from stopping. He ma}* then 
give him liberty, and proceed with the same spirit as before. 
He may make a stop; and may even rein him back two or 
three steps ; in both cases keeping him so united and animated 
that the instant the hand gives him liberty he advances as 
rapidly as before. (Plate LYI. illustrates the Trot.) 

ROAD RIDING. 

Road riding is here introduced, because the trot is its most 
appropriate pace. 

The difference between manege and road riding, consists 
chiefly in a shorter seat and a shorter stirrup being used in the 
latter. A certain freedom and ease are also admissible. These, 
however, must not exceed propriety*, lead to neglect of the 
horse, or risk security. The hand shoidd keep its situation and 
property, though the body be turned to any extreme for the 
purpose of viewing or conversing ; and the body must not, by 
any freedom it takes, throw itself out of balance, or take 
liberties when it cannot be done with safety. 

When the trot is extended to an unpleasant roughness, the 
jolting may be eased by rising upward and slightly forward in 
the stirrups. The faster the horse trots, the easier it is to rise ; 
for it is the action of the horse, and not any effort of the rider, 
that must raise him. The foot he leads with determines that 
which the rider must rise to ; and, if the horse change his foot, 



ROAD RIDING. 



151 



he must change with him. He must accordingly rise and fail 
with the leading foot, rising when the leading foot is in the air, 
and falling when it comes to the ground. The rise and fall of 
the body are to be smooth, and as regular as the beats of the 
feet. 

Though this is called rising in the stirrups, no great stress or 
dependence is to be put on them. Such improper use of the 
stirrups causes many persons to be thrown, by the horse shying 
or suddenly turning round. The rising of the body must not 
be accompanied by any motion of the arms, or lifting of the 
shoulders. The hand is to be held steady as well as low, to 
prevent galloping (which the forwardness of the haunches 
would render inevitable if the hand were either eased or lifted), 
and the reins should be of that precise length which preserves 
as much correspondence as possible between the hand and 
mouth. The steadiness of the hand is also necessary for the 
support of the horse. 

The slight inclination of the body permitted in road riding 
must not occasion any roundness in the back, which is invariably 
to be hollow, not only for appearance sake but for safety. The 
action of the body likewise must not cause the legs to move or 
press the horse, which might cause him to gallop. In trotting, 
the rider must pay the greatest attention to correct every pro- 
pensity to lift, hitch, overrate, or gallop; and, whenever he 
feels these propensities, he must check them with the greatest 
nicety, in order not to retard the horse's speed. (Plate LVI1. 
illustrates the Seat, &c, in Road Riding.*) 

* In road riding 1 , the rale of taking the right hand of all you pass is well 
known ; but there are some exceptions, which are thus noticed by Mr. 
Bunbury, in his ironical style :— 

" In riding the road, should a man on horseback be in your way leading 
another horse, always dash by the led one ; you might otherwise set the man's 
horse capering, and perhaps throw him off ; and you can get but a kick or 
two by observing my instructions.— In passing a waggon, or any tremendous 
equipage, should it run pretty near a bank, and there be but a ditch, and an 
open country on the other side, if you are on business, and in a hurry, dash 
up the bank without hesitation ; for, should you take the other side, and the 



152 



RIDING, 



THE GALLOP, 

As to the character of the gallop, when we press a horse in 
the trot beyond his capacity, or animate him with the legs while 
we raise or retain him with the hand, we compel him to lift his 
two fore-feet after each other, which commences the gallop. 
The near fore-foot is first raised from the ground ; then the off 
fore-foot, which, however, passes the other, and they come to 
the ground in the same order, the near fore-foot making one 
beat, and the off fore-foot another, that being the most advanced 
or leading foot. The hind feet follow in the same manner ; the 
near hind-foot marking a third beat, and the off hind-foot 
passing forward, and marking a fourth beat. Thus, when this 
pace is united and true, the feet mark a regular, sharp, and 
quick time of one, two, three, four. The perfection of the gal- 
lop consists in the suppleness of the limbs, the union of the 
horse, the justness of the action, and the regularity of the 
time. 

The gallop is of three kinds — that of the racer, that of the 
hunter, and that of the pleasure horse, commonly called the 
canter. The last of these is by far the most difficult, as it re- 
quires skill to fore-shorten and throw the horse on his haunches. 
In the gallop, as in the trot, there is a leading foot. On a 
straight hue, it is immaterial with which fore-leg the horse 
leads, provided the hind-leg of the same side follows it. But to 
lead always with the same leg is injurious. In galloping to the 
right, the horse must lead with the inward or off fore-leg. fol- 
lowed by the off hind-leg. This action is termed true or united. 
— (Plate LVIIL* shows this in the canter.) In galloping to 

horse shy at the carriage, you may be carried many hundred yards out of your 
road; whereas, by a little effort of courage, you need only graze the wheel, 
fly up the bank, and by slipping: or tumbling down into the road again, go 
little or nothing out of your way." 

* In galloping to the right, if the horse lead with the off fore-leg and near 
hind-leg. or if he lead with the near fore-leg and off hind-leg, he is said to be 
disunited. If, in galloping to the right, he lead "with both near legs., he is 
said to be false. 



THE GALLOP. 



153 



the left, lie must lead with the inward or near fore-leg, followed 
by the near hind-leg. This also is termed true or united.* 

The Canter in particular. 

To put the horse to the canter from rest at any spot, or from 
any pace, he must be pressed with the legs, or animated with 
the tongue, and at the same time, by a motion of the ringers, and 
a little raising of the hand, be invited to raise the fore-legs. If 
he do not obey this, the animation must be increased, and the 
hand kept more firm, to prevent his trotting : and this will con- 
strain him to raise his fore-legs together. It is also necessary 
to direct the foot he is to lead with. That of course is the inner, 
which he will readily take by putting the croupe in, by means 
of the opposite thigh, thereby enabling him to advance the 
inner side. 

As the position of the horse renders necessary a correspond- 
ing position of the horseman, it will readily be seen that which- 
ever side the horse leads with, the rider's thigh on that side 
must be rather more turned in towards the saddle, and the hip 
on that side brought more forward, and consequently that the 
other thigh must be a little turned outward, and the hip brought 
backward; and all this more or less in proportion to the position 
of the horse. This turn of the hip effects a turn of the body. 
The hands are carried with it, and at the same time kept up, rather 
above than below the elbow, and quite steady, that the cadence 
of every step, and the support given by the hand, may be 
felt. The rider's head is of course to be directed to the horse's 
nose, his eye glancing on the ground the horse's fore-feet go over. 

If the horse strike off with the wrong leg, false or disunited, 
the rider, at the first corner, must endeavour, by an additional 
feeling of the inward rein, and application of the outward leg, 
to make him change, and lead with the proper one. When he 

* In galloping to the left, if the horse lead with the near fore-leg- and off 
hind-leg, or if he lead with the off fore-leg and near hind-leg, he is said to be 
disunited. If, in galloping to the left, he lead with both off legs, he is said 
to be false. 



154 



RIDING. 



leads with the proper leg, the hand must resume its usua* posi- 
tion, the rider bending him a little inwards by shortening the 
inward rein; the ringers slackened, if necessary, to let him 
advance; but the hand kept up, and every cadence felt of the 
fore-feet coming to the ground. 

There is far more skill displayed in keeping up an animated 
action in the canter, at the rate of three miles an hour, than in 
the gallop, at that of twelve or fifteen. If the animation fail, 
or the action be not supported by the hand, the horse will 
break into a trot, particularly as the gallop is shortened or 
united. If the action is felt to be declining, it must be cor- 
rected instantly, by an animating touch of the fingers, the leg, 
or the tongue. The hand first discovers this declension, and is 
the first to correct it. 

When the rider can put his horse off to either hand with the 
proper leg, and support the action, he must particularly attend 
to its truth and union, and try to raise it to the highest anima- 
tion, riding sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly, yet always 
united. 

When the gallop is disunited and extended to speed, even 
though the horse is supple and just on his legs, it loses its har- 
mony and regularity of time. The fore-legs then measure less 
space from each other, and so do the hind-legs, which makes 
the beats quicker in each, and leaves a space between the beats 
of the fore-legs and the beats of the hind. In these gallops, it 
would be highly imprudent to circle or turn, but on a very large 
scale. 

Turns, Changes, Stops, fyc. in the Gallop. 

In turning the horse to the right and left, at a canter, his 
fore-hand must be raised with the leading rein, and the haunches 
pressed forward and under him : at the same time, the outward 
rein must assist to steady him, and a pressure of the calf of 
the outward leg keep the haunches from falling too much out. 
If he is turned suddenly with the inward rein only, without 
lifting- the fore-hand, or applying the outward leg, he must turn 



THE GALLOP. 



155 



on his shoulders, lose power to halt on his haunches, and being 
twisted round unprepared, will change to the outer leg. 

In changing, the operation must be performed smoothly and 
evenly at the same instant ; so that, at the finish of the cadence, 
the body, hands, thighs, and legs of the rider are reversed, for 
the horse to commence his next cadence with the contrary 
leg. 

In stopping in the gallop, the rider must seize the time when 
the horse's fore-feet are coming to the ground, which is the 
beginning of the cadence : and he must take care that the hind 
feet, coming up to their exact distance, and finishing the cadence, 
complete the stop : leaving the horse so balanced that he can 
readily set off again with the same rapidity as before. Besides 
seizing the exact time, a due degree of power must thus be 
exerted, conformably to the readiness, obedience, union, or 
rapidity of the action ; for, should the power be deficient, the 
stop would not be properly effected ; and if it be excessive, the 
horse will be overbalanced on his haunches, and compelled con- 
sequently to move his feet after the cadence is finished. Till 
horses are ready and obedient to the stop, it should not be 
attempted in violent and rapid gallops ; nor even then if they 
are weak, or the rider heavy. — In these cases, the double arret 
is used. 

The double arret is the stop completed in two cadences of the 
gallop, which is far less distressing both to man and horse. 
The body being gently thrown back, will not make the action 
instantaneously cease ; but the obedience of the horse makes 
the effort which checks half his career in the first cadence ; and, 
the body still being kept back, he completes it in the second. 
However, till practised and made obedient to the stop, he will 
not easily perform the double arret ; for, in the first instance, 
he must be taught to stop by compulsion ; and it is only when 
practice has brought him to obedience, that he readily stops at 
the easy throwing back of the body. 

The half stop is a pause in the gallop, or the action suspended 
for half a second, and then resumed again. Here the body is 



156 



RIDING. 



thrown back less determinately, lest we should so overbalance 
the horse that he cannot readily set off again after the finish of 
the cadence, which no sooner occurs than the body is brought 
forward, to permit the action to go on. Thus the half stop is 
only a pause in the gallop, and it is mostly used to effect a 
change from the right leg to the left, or the opposite. The 
cadence of the stop should be no shorter than the readiness and 
obedience of the horse will admit ; the half stop not quite so 
short ; and the two arrets still more moderate. 

LEAPING. 

The moveable bar for leaping should be ten feet in length, 
which will admit of two horses leaping abreast ; at first from 
one to two feet high ; and never very high. 

As to the seat, it should be again observed that stirrups are 
no security in any situation on horseback ; and those who can- 
not forbear pressing a weight on them, had better have none 
when learning to leap. An accurate balance must prevent all dis- 
turbance of the seat ; for the slightest, whether the rider is thrown 
up from the saddle, or his body falls forward, or he gets out 
of balance, is as disgraceful as falling to the ground. He should 
sit so close as to carry a shilling under each thigh just above 
the knee, one in each stirrup under the toe, and one under his 
breech. 

When any action of the horse tends to lift the rider from the 
saddle, stirrups cannot keep him down. Bearing on the stirrup, 
indeed, must lift the rider from the saddle, and would even 
loosen any hold he might take with the thighs or legs. Nothing 
but the weight of the body can press to the saddle. When the 
action is violent, however, the pressure of the thighs may be 
employed to hold it down ; and, when the hold of the thighs is 
not sufficient, the legs may take a deeper, and stronger hold. 
Leaps are taken standing or flying; the first being most difficult 
to sit, though always practised first, because the slow and steady 
leaping of a properly managed horse gives the rider time and 



LEAPING. 



157 



recollection, and the riding-master an opportunity to direct, and 
to prevent accidents. 

Standing Leap. 

In the standing leap, the horse first shortens, and then ex- 
tends himself. Readiness in the hand of the rider is therefore 
requisite to give the appropriate aids. These, if well timed, 
assist the horse : if otherwise, they check or embarrass him, and 
endanger both the animal and his rider. (Plates LIX. and LX. 
illustrate the Leap.) 

The rider must therefore, by a ready and fearless yielding of 
the bridle, leave the horse at liberty to extend himself, preserving 
his own equilibrium only by leaning forward, as the horse rises, 
and backward as he alights, When he is brought to the bar, 
the body is to be upright. The legs are to be applied to his 
sides with such firmness as to keep the rider down to the saddle, 
and in such a manner — viz., perpendicularly from the knee — 
that the action of the body shall not loosen or disturb them. 
The toes must be pulled up, to make the muscles firm, and to 
prevent the spur from approaching too near the horse ; and, if 
necessary, they may be turned out a little to strengthen the 
hold. The hand must be kept in the centre, and quite low; 
and the reins not too short, but just by the pressure of the 
fingers to feel the horse's mouth. When at the bar, the pres- 
sure of the legs and fingers will invite the horse to rise ; and, as 
he rises, the body comes forward and preserves its perpendicular. 
The back must then be kept in, and the head firm. 

As the horse springs from his hind legs, and proceeds in the 
leap, the rider must slip his buttock under him, and let his body 
go freely back, keeping his hands down, legs close, and body 
back, till the horse's hind legs have come to the ground. The 
propriety of applying the legs to hold firm in the saddle is obvi- 
ous. The hand being kept low is essential ; and the bad con- 
sequences of raising it are numerous, as confining the horse, 
preventing the body going back, throwing the rider forward, &c. 
The body coming forward to preserve its perpendicular as the 



158 



RIDING. 



horse rises before, prevents the weight of the rider from hang- 
ing on his mouth, and checking his leap, if not pulling him over 
backwards. The back being hollow when the spring forward is 
made, the body will of itself fall backward, if the hand be not 
raised to prevent it ; and the head being firm may prevent a 
wrench of the neck, or a bite of the tongue. Slipping the breech 
under gives the body more liberty to lean back, and prevents 
the shock of the horse's feet meeting the ground, from throwing 
it forward. 

While the seat is thus maintained, the hand must not be neg- 
lected. In riding up to a leap, the rider should yield the bridle 
to the horse, guiding him straight to the bar at an animated pace; 
halt him with a light hand, and upon his haunches ; when he 
rises, only feel the reins to prevent their becoming slack ; when 
he springs forward, yield the hand without reserve ; and, when 
his hind feet come to the ground, again firmly collect him, re- 
sume his usual position, and move on at the former pace. If the 
horse be too much collected previous to his leap, he will bound, 
or buck over, as it is called. If not sufficiently collected or ani- 
mated, he will probably not clear the leap. The degree in which 
a horse should be collected and animated depends on the tem- 
perament of the animal, and must be left to the judgment of 
the rider. 

Flying Leap. 

The flying leap is distinguished from the standing leap by its 
being made from any pace without a previous halt ; and although 
the action is quicker, it is much easier. The pace, however, at 
which the rider goes at a fiying leap, should always be moderate, 
in order that the horse may not rise too soon or too late. 

A horse who rises too far froin the bar seldom clears his leap, 
and risks straining by the effort to cover it ; one who rises too 
near is likely to strike his knees against it, and throw his rider, 
or hurt himself. If a horse be indolent, and require animation, 
it is better to rouse his apathy by the spur just before his head 
is turned towards the leap, than while he is running at it. If he 
leap willingly, let him take his own pace to it, and he will spring 



CRITICAL SITUATIONS. 



159 



from his proper distance, and give himself due velocity. Twelve 
yards from the leap, the rider may turn his horse to it in a trot ; 
he will strike into a gallop ; and, by a stroke or two before he 
springs, increase his velocity, if he perceive that the height he 
has to cover requires that exertion. 

The seat in the flying leap is exactly the same as in the stand- 
ing one ; but, as the horse keeps a more horizontal position, it 
is easier. The rider, however, must not bring his body forward 
at the raising of the fore legs, because the spring from the hind 
legs immediately follows, and the body not only might not get 
back in time, but, if the horse did not come fair, or refused to 
take his leap, and checked himself, the body, if forward, might 
cause the rider to tumble over his head. He should therefore 
keep his body upright ; take hold with his legs ; keep his hand 
down ; and, as the horse springs forward, his body is sure to 
take the corresponding action of leaning back, particularly if he, 
at the instant, slip his breech under him, and bring his waist 
forward with an exertion proportioned to the spring the horse 
makes. He must also take care not to bring his body upright, 
nor slacken the hold with his legs, till after the hind feet have 
come to the ground. 

In this leap, the horse requires but little support or assistance 
from the hand till he is coming to the ground, when the hand 
aids in bringing the body upright, and in supporting the horse. 
The assisting and lifting a horse over leaps may be done only 
by experienced riders, and even by them only when he leaps 
freely and determinedly. Whips should not be used when the 
rider first practises leaping. 

CRITICAL SITUATIONS. 

When a horse is addicted to stumbling, rearing, kicking and 
bolting, plunging, shying and restiveness, the seat is maintained 
as in leaps ; and the arms are held firm to the body, the hands 
kept up, and the reins separate, rather short than otherwise. 
By these means, the horse's head being raised, he can with less 
ease either rear or kick, because, for such purposes, he must 



160 



RIDING. 



have his head at liberty. It is fortunate that horses which rear 
high seldom kick, and vice versa. 

On these occasions, the first operation of the rider is to sepa- 
rate the reins, &c. The body must he kept upright, but flexible, 
to repel every effort the horse may make ; the balance must be 
preserved by the muscles of the thighs ; the legs are to be kept 
near the horse, but not to grasp till absolutely necessary. When 
he lifts his fore legs, the breech must be thrust out behind, by 
which the rider is prepared if he rears. As the fore feet come 
to the ground, the breech must be slipped under, which prepares 
for his kicking or springing forward ; the legs being then in a 
situation to grasp, and the hands to keep a firm hold. In all 
displays of vice, the rider should first see that the saddle or 
girths do not pinch the horse, that the bit does not hurt his lips 
by being too high in his mouth, &c. 

Stumbling. 

By the rider pressing his legs to the horse 5 s flanks, and keep- 
ing up his head, he may be made to go light on his fore legs ; 
and the same should be done if he actually stumble, so as to 
afford him instant assistance. Hence it is evident that the bridle 
should be of such length in the hand, that, in case of stumbling, 
the rider mav be thus able to raise the horse's head by the 
strength of his arms and the weight of his body thrown back- 
ward. If the rein be too long, it is evident that, in effecting 
this manoeuvre, the rider is in danger of falling backward as the 
horse rises. By thus pressing the legs to the horse's sides, he 
may be made to keep his haunches under him in going down 
hill, or may be helped on the side of a bank. 

Rearing. 

The principal danger in rearing is the hazard of the horse's 
falling backwards. When, therefore, he rises straight up, the 
rider must throw his body forward, giving him all the bridle. 
The weight of the body will oblige him to come down ; and the 
moment that his fore feet are near the ground, and before he 



CRITICAL SITUATIONS. 



161 



touches it, both the spurs must be given him as firmly and as 
quickly as possible. 

Another mode of subduing him is, whenever the rider is aware 
of the horse's disposition to rear, to have the reins separated ; 
and the instant he perceives him going to rise, to slack one hand 
and bend him with the other, keeping the hand low. This com- 
pels him to move a hind leg, and being thrown off his balance, 
he necessarily comes down with his fore feet. He should then 
be twisted round two or three times, to convince him of the 
rider's superiority, which confuses, baffles, and deters him from 
rearing to any dangerous height. To break horses of this dan- 
gerous vice, it has been sometimes expedient to leap from them, 
and pull them backwards. This so frightens them that they are 
wary of giving the opportunity again. It is, however, an expe- 
dient to be attempted only at a particular crisis, and by persons 
perfectly collected, active, and agile.* 

Kicking. 

Horses apt to kick, either when they go forward or stand still, 
must be kept much together, or held in closely. When this is 

* On this subject, an anonymous writer, in answer to a query, says, " I would 
advise you by no means to try the experiment in question, either as operator 
yourself, or on your own horse. At all events, pray make trial first of the fol- 
lowing- prescription, which will in most cases be found an excellent preventive, 
if not a total cure, of the propensity complained of, and which has the advan- 
tage over the method respecting which you inquire, of being much easier and 
safer in its application, and, I may perhaps add, surer in its effects, and less 
expensive on the whole. 

" Get a strong thick curb bit, with a good deep port reversed— that is, the 
curve of the mouth-piece must project towards the outside of the horse's 
mouth, and not inwardly towards his throat, as in the common port bit. The 
thickness and exact curve of the bit should be calculated according to the 
size, strength, and hardness of mouth of the animal for which it is intended. 
For a very hard-mouthed horse, the bit should be made with a very deep port, 
and as thin as possible, consistently with the strength requisite. 

" In nine cases out of ten, 1 have found that confirmed rearers are tender- 
mouthed, and the habit has been probably induced by their being bitted and 
handled too severely A martingale will be found a useful addition to the bit 
I have described. Its full efficacy can only be sufficiently appreciated by its 
being used several times, till the horse has become in some degree accus- 
tomed to it." 

M 



162 



RIDING. 



attempted, the hands, though fixed, must not pull at the horse, 
if he does not attempt to force the hand, and get his head, but 
leave him at liberty to go forward. If, however, he attempt to 
get his head down, which would enable him to kick with such 
violence as to throw himself, he may have the head confined up. 
This disarms him, and he makes a bolt from all-fours. 

When a horse kicks, the rider must throw the body backward. 
It is an effective punishment to twist him roimd a few times for 
this fault. If this is done towards his weak or unprepared side 
(for every horse has a favourite side), astonishment and confusion 
will deter him from farther contention. In case of bolting, the 
rider must not exert one continued pull, but make repeated pulls 
until the horse obeys. Horses accustomed to be allowed to bear 
on the bit would not understand the steady pull as a signal to 
desist; and some would so throw up their heads as to deprive 
the rider of all power without dropping his hand, when the horse 
would drop his head. In that case, a second pull would find his 
mouth, and thus speedily his progress might be stopped. 

Plunging. 

In plunging, a horse gets his head down, cringes his tail be- 
tween his quarters, sets his back up, swells his bod}' to burst his 
girths, and, in this position, kicks and plunges till his breath 
can be held no longer — that is, till he makes six or eight plunges. 
To sit these is to cure them ; and to do this, the rider must take 
a firm hold with his legs, and be mindful that the horse, in 
getting his head down, does not pull him forward. There is no 
danger of his rearing ; and therefore the rider has only to keep 
his body back, and hold firmly with his hands, to prevent him 
throwing himself down. 

Shying. 

When a horse, either by shying or restiveness, springs to one 
side, or turns short round, the rider's security depends on strict 
conformity to the rules already laid down, as to not bearing on 
the stirrups ; keeping the legs near to the horse, to be ready on 



CRITICAL SITUATIONS. 



163 



these sudden and unexpected occasions to lay hold ; and yielding 
the body to go with him. 

When a horse is about to fly to one side, he may be stopped 
by his rider's leg being pressed on the side he would fly to, and 
by keeping his head high and straight forward, so as to prevent 
his looking towards the object he starts at, unless indeed it be 
something you desire to accustom him to the sight of, and then, 
whether you keep his face to it throughout, or avert it at first, 
and turn it gently towards it at last, great steadiness is neces- 
sary. When he curvets irregularly, and twists himself to and 
fro, his head should be turned to one side, or both alternately, 
without permitting him to move out of the track; and the rider's 
leg should be pressed against the opposite side. In this case, 
lie cannot spring on one side, because the pressure of the leg 
prevents him, nor will he spring to the other, because his head 
is turned that way, and a horse never starts to the side to which 
he looks. 

Moreover, he will not fly back from anything, but go forward, 
if both legs be pressed against his sides. Thus he may be made 
to pass a carriage or other object in a narrow road ; and here 
perseverance is especially necessary when the object is just 
r ached, or partly passed, for if in the habit of going back and 
turning round when frightened, he will certainly do so when, if, 
by the hands slackening and legs failing to press, he discovers 
that you are irresolute ; and this he would probably do at the 
most dangerous moment, when there was scarcely room for 
him to turn, and the wheels might take him in the rear. To 
touch his curb rein at such a moment would add to the confusion 
and danger. 

Restiveness. 

The horse generally commences his attack by stopping, turn- 
ing short round, mostly to the right hand, as taking the rider 
to the greatest disadvantage. He expects the rider will oppose 
the opposite hand, designedly attacks the weakest, and is so 
prepared against its efforts that it is vain to attempt them. It 

m 2 



164 



RIDING. 



must be the rider's rule never to contend with the horse on that 
point on which he is prepared to resist. 

Instead, therefore, of attempting to prevent the horse with 
his left hand, the rider must attack him with his right, turn him 
completely round, so that his head is again presented the right 
way, and then apply the whip. If he turns round again, the 
rider must still attack his unguarded side, turn him two or three 
times, and let the heel and spur, if necessary, assist the hand, 
before he can arm or defend himself against it. 

If he still refuse to go the right way, the rider must take care 
that he go no other, and immediately change his attack, turning 
him about and reining him backward, which the horse is easily 
compelled to do when he sets himself against going forward. In 
these contests, the rider must be collected, and have an eye to 
the surrounding objects ; for restive horses try their utmost to 
place their riders in awkward situations, hj sidling to other 
horses, carriages, the foot-pavement, the houses, &c. 

In this case, the rider, instead of pulling him from the wall, 
must bend his head to it, by which his side next the Avail is ren- 
dered concave, and his utmost endeavours to do injury are pre- 
vented. The iustant, therefore, that the rider perceives his horse 
sidling to any object, he must turn his head to that object, and 
back him from it. 

There are some horses who fix themselves like stocks, setting 
all endeavours to move them at defiance. There, happily, their 
defence can in no way endanger the rider. It must, however, 
be converted to punishment. Let them stand, make no attempt 
to move them, and in a short space — frequently less than a 
minute — they will move of themselves. 

When these various defences, however, are not powerfully set 
up, the general rule is to push the horse forward ; and, for this 
purpose, at first to make use of the switch, as it alarms him 
least, for the spurs surprise a horse, abate his courage, and are 
likely to make him restive. Indeed, the application of the whip 
or spurs, except to shift the croupe, or give efficacy to the hands, 
is of little use ; and to repeat either, to make a restive horse go 



TREATMENT OF THE HORSE. 



165 



forward, is certainly wrong. When passion possesses the rider, 
it prevents that concord and unity taking place which ever should 
subsist between the rider and his horse. He should always be 
disposed to amity, and never suffer the most obstinate resistance 
of the horse to put him out of temper. If the contest does not 
demand his utmost exertion of strength, he should be able to 
hum a tune, or converse with the same composure and indif- 
ference as though his horse were all obedience. By these means, 
the instant a horse finds himself foiled, he desists, having no 
provocation to contend farther, and is abashed at his own weak- 
ness. It is the absence of passion which, added to cool ob- 
servation, makes the English the best riders and drivers in the 
world. 

TREATMENT OF THE HORSE. 

Stables are generally too dark and too hot. They should be 
kept quite cool, though without any draughts. 

" A way/' says De Beranger, in Helps and Hints, " of making 
the most of your horses, is to rise early in the summer, m order 
to do half your day's work before the heat of the day ; for lying 
by the whole of the rest of the day, not only affords a traveller 
time and opportunity for examining what is worthy of being 
seen, but enables him to start with horses quite fresh, and to 
finish the remaining stage after sunset : not only will your horses 
go through their task with less labour in the cool of the even- 
ing, but you will find them travel more freely towards a resting- 
place, which darkness leads them to expect." 

A horse ought not to be ridden a stage while in physic, nor on 
the day of its coming off. If he be pushed at first setting out 
on a journey, or be compelled to make long stages, or be de- 
prived of his customary baits, he gets jaded, and every additional 
mile adds to his uneasiness. Moreover, at setting out in the 
morning, a well-kept horse is necessarily full of food, and con- 
sequently, until his great gut be properly emptied, brisk action 
occasions uneasiness or pain, which causes restlessness. 

" When I travel on horseback/' says the same writer, " I make 



166 



RIDING. 



it a rule to walk every seventh mile, be the roads ever so level : 
it affords a wonderful relief both to man and horse, and, instead 
of producing a loss of time, helps you on. When you dismount 
for such ends, always slacken your girths, slightly lift up the 
saddle to let a little air under it, and teach your horse (what he 
soon will learn) to walk briskly by your side, and keep the step 
with you, taking care to hold either of the reins lightly in your 
hand, and without shifting it over the horse's head. Your steed 
will soon give you demonstrations of his gratitude, for he will 
be full of affectionate playfulness as he jogs along at your side, 
only to be rivalled by his willingness to let you mount after you 
have tightened the girths again. I need hardly tell you not to 
put your arm or wrist through a rein whilst walking or running 
by the side of a horse, for it is replete with danger. A good run 
with one hand on the horse's withers is pleasant, and greatly 
removes the stiffness of the joints so frequently occasioned by 
much riding ; but the reins should be held between the fingers 
only, and rather loosely." 

Hence, it follows that, although expedition be indispensable, 
the horse ought not to be put on his best pace at first, but con- 
siderably within it. Even this pace should be for a short space 
only ; the reins should be loosened ; the mouth played with ; 
and if he do not evacuate, the pace may be repeated once more, 
— unless, indeed, he sweat much with the first, which is a sign 
of weakness, or that his dung is hard, and he requires pmging. 

While on the journey, the rider should be less attentive to 
his horse's nice carriage of himself, than to his own encourage- 
ment of him, and keeping him in good humour. Though gene- 
rally he should raise his horse's head, }^et when he flags in 
consequence of a long day or hard work, he may indulge 
him with bearing a little more upon the bit than he would in 
taking a mere airing exercise, or afternoon's canter in the Park. 
Keeping company with some other horseman facilitates a stage, 
by the emulation it excites ; so that a dull animal, which one 
can scarcely get seven miles an hour from, will do nine or ten 
without fatigue when in company. 



TREATMENT OF THE HORSE. 



167 



In road-riding, a picker is indispensable both in winter and 
summer. In winter, it is necessary to relieve the sole when 
snow accumulates there. When, however, the traveller knows 
that snow is on the ground, he may avoid the trouble of dis- 
mounting, by previously ordering his horse's soles to be payed 
over with tar, or with tallow having no salt in it. At all times, 
when the roads have received fresh dressings, a picker is indis- 
pensable, because a loose stone is very liable to lodge in the 
hollow of the foot, and is dangerously driven backwards between 
the frog and the shoe, at every step the horse takes. 

Pace and length of stage must be adapted to the heat of the 
weather in summer, and to the depth of the roads in winter : 
both seasons having the effect of knocking up the horse. In 
either case, a cordial promptly administered recovers him for 
the prosecution of his journey. The cordial readiest provided, 
and which should be kept at hand by the provident traveller, is 
in the form of a ball, and composed of aniseeds, ginger, carra- 
way, of each, powdered, half an ounce, and mixed up with treacle 
and meal to the proper consistence. But good ale or porter, 
from one pint to a quart, made warm, operates sooner, and, 
upon emergency, is nearly as readily obtained as the ball. 

Walking a horse the last mile, especially of a long stage, is 
a practice highly beneficial. As, upon setting out, we should 
not go off at the quickest pace, so upon coming in, we should 
not dash into our quarters with the perspiration streaming from 
each pore, in the mild season, nor covered over with dirt, in 
consequence of the pace, in wet weather. Even in winter, the 
perspiration flies from a strong horse, if in condition, upon 
coming in more sheltered places, and the practices he is then 
subjected to are commonly of such a nature as to cause disease 
in one way or another, in embryo, if not immediately. 

The rider is greatly to be blamed who stands quietly by, or 
hides himself in the parlour, while his horse is brought in hot, 
stripped of every thing, and led about to cool, in the draught of a 
gateway, or has the dirt washed off by plunging him in a horse- 
trough or pond, or his legs brushed in cold water in the open 



168 



RIDING. 



yard, while pailfulls, at the same time, are thrown over them : 
the consequence of all which is cough or colic, bad eyes, swelled 
legs, or inflammation of some vital part, which deprives the 
animal of life. 

The horse should have a large and comfortable stall, and 
without any door behind him, a draught from which, by blowing 
up his coat, might expose him to cold. On coming in, after 
being coaxed to stale, he should undergo (in winter-time in 
doors) a wisping all over with straw, beginning at the head, 
and proceeding to the neck and fore-quarters. His eyes, 
nostrils, &c, should also be cleansed with a sponge, and his 
ears rubbed. He should, at the same time, have before him 
a lock of sweet hay, in his rack, or a prickle, or the hand ; and 
the rider should see whether he eats or not, whether he en- 
joys the wisping, and whether he chiefly evince a desire to He 
down or a craving for food. 

The girths having been already loosened, but the saddle still 
remaining on his back, his head should be turned to the 
rack, and his hind- quarters, legs, and belly, sheath and fork, 
wisped, and his feet picked clean and washed. After this, the 
saddle should be removed by sliding it back over the croupe ; 
and the dressing be extended to the withers, back, and so com- 
pletely all over the carcass, until it is dry. The saddle should 
be hung out, with the inside toward the sun ; and when the 
pannels have been duly aired and dried, they should be slightly 
beaten and well brushed. 

If the horse refuse the first proffer of hay, the rider may con- 
clude that he has been pushed too much, as to time or length. 
If he still refuse his food, though the dressing be finished, he 
may be assured that his stomach is disordered, and he must be 
cordialled. In winter, a warm mash of malt is most eligible ; 
but, if not at hand, a bran mash with an admixture of oatmeal, 
and a quart of good ale, may be given. In summer, a cordial 
ball will restore the tone of his stomach, without increasing the 
heat of his body so much as a mash would. If he is not aged, 
nor inured to cordialling, a small pail of stout water-gruel, 



TREATMENT OF THE HORSE. 



169 



almost cold, excels all other cordials, and supersedes the neces- 
sity of watering ; he will take his supper an hour or so after- 
wards, with a relish. 

The traveller ought to look to every particular himself. — In 
the next place, let him see that his horse gets his allowance of 
corn, that it be good, and that it contain no indications of hav- 
ing been in a manger before ; for, in that case, he must wait by 
him until all the food is devoured. Dry food is alone proper to 
travel upon, and oats are the best ; much hay being apt to 
engender flatulencies. When, however, a very long stage is to 
be taken, or it is cold, dreary, wet, or windy, a handful of 
crushed beans sustains him admirably, staying by him, and im- 
parting vigour for a long time. The horse should not be denied 
water often; though too much at one time should not be 
given, nor, without its being chilled, any immediately after 
being fed. 

His feet and shoes should be looked to, to ascertain if 
aught require repair, in order that it may be furnished as 
soon as he has recovered from his fatigue. — His limbs, more- 
over, should be examined all over, for cracks, pricked foot, &c, 
and the body, for saddle-galls, &c. Now, as ever, his dunging 
should be looked to. Even if in full condition, having been 
well and regularly fed, and as regularly worked, he will contract 
a tendency to constipation ; the least ill consequence of which 
is defective pace, or short step, arising from more laboured 
action. As the inconvenience may be suffered to last, he sweats 
immoderately at the least extra exertion, his eyes lose their 
wonted brightness, his mouth becomes hot, and his manner is 
languid. All these evils may be prevented by timely physicking, 
whenever the dung is seen to fall upon the ground without the 
pellets breaking. Even a little green food, or a day's mashing 
with bran, thin oatmeal gruel, and the like, will soften the dung 
considerably. It must be remembered that these things are 
to be undertaken on blank days, when the traveller is certain 
the horse will not be ridden a stage. The following allowance 



170 



DRIVING. 



per week is generally enough to keep a horse in good con- 
dition : — 

Oats. Beans. Hay. 

For a horse of from ^ 
144 to 16 hands / U bushel; 2 quarterns; 1$ truss. 

For a horse under J bughel n tern l trQSS< 

14£ hands ' 



DRIVING. 

Among the ancients, for more than one thousand years, the 
greatest honour that could be bestowed upon a man was a 
sprig of the wild olive tree entwined round his brow, for having 
gained a victory in the chariot-race at the Olympic games of 
Greece. This sprig of olive, moreover, was accompanied by 
other marks of distinction : the wearer of it was not only 
honoured with statues and inscriptions dming Ins life-time, but 
the immortal Pindar, or some other great poet, was called upon 
to hand his name down to posterity 7 in an ode. The Olympic 
games were revived, as a religious ceremony* by Iphitus, an 
Eleam about nine hundred years before Christ. They were 
celebrated near Olympia, in the territory of Elis. Horse and 
chariot races were considered their noblest sports. No one was 
there prevented from driving his own chariot ; and kings were 
often seen contending against kings. 

The Greeks were the most enlightened of the ancients, and 
their taste in the arts has never been even rivalled. What they 
did, therefore, on this occasion, could not be considered as in 
bad taste ; and, when we remember that the celebration of 
these pastimes outlived the laws, customs, and liberty of their 
country, we need not say more in their vindication. The 
honours of victory were not even confined to the brave and 
skilful man who won the race : even the horses were crowned 



IMPORTANCE OF DRIVING, ETC. 



171 



amidst the applauses of the spectators ; and in one race, where 
fort}' chariots were broken, the victorious one was preserved 
in the temple of Apollo. Such being the havoc among the com- 
petitors, it is not wonderful that Ovid should say, that the 
honour of contending for the Olympic prize was almost equal to 
the winning of it. 

Sophocles modestly speaks of ten starting at the same time 
in the race ; but Pindar, availing himself, perhaps, of poetic 
licence, makes the number forty. Four horses driven abreast 
was the usual number. The length* of the course on which 
they ran did not exceed an English mile, and as they had to 
make twenty-two turnings round the two pillars — generally, 
we may suppose, at full speed — it is not difficult to imagine 
what dreadful accidents must have happened. 

Nothing indeed but the form of chariot used could have en- 
sured safety to any one. From the representations on ancient 
coins, it appears to have been very low, and only on two wheels, 
somewhat resembling our curricle. It had of course no springs ; 
and, as there was no seat for the charioteer, much of his 
skill consisted in preserving his balance, and keeping upon 
his legs. 

According to Pausanias, the following was the method of 
starting : — The chariots entered the course according to order, 
previously settled by lot, and drew up in a line. They started 
at a signal given, and to him who passed the pillar at the top of 
the course twelve times, and that at the bottom ten times, in 
the neatest manner, without touching it, or overturning his 
chariot, was the regard given. — As, however, it was the aim of 
even' one who started to make for this pillar, as to a centre, we 
can easily imagine the confusion there must have been in forty, 
twenty, or even ten chariots, all rushing to one given point, 
amidst the clanging of trumpets, &c. 

* The Circus Alaxirnus at Rome, in which the Romans exhibited their 
chariot-races, was an oval building of one thousand eight hundred feet in 
length, and four hundred in breadth. 



172 



DRIVING. 



The following translation of a description of a chariot-race, 
from the Electra of Sophocles, is worthy of a place. 

" When on the sacred day, in order next 
Came on the contest of the rapid car, 
As o'er the Phocian plain the orient sun 
Shot his impurpled beams, the Pythic course 
Orestes enter'd, circled with a troop 
Of charioteers, his bold antagonists. 
One from Achaia came ; from Sparta one ; 
Two from the Lybian shores, well practised each 
To rule the whirling car : with these the fifth, 
Orestes, vaunting- his Thessalian mares : 
^Etolia sent a sLxth, with youthful steeds 
In native gold arrayed : the next in rank 
From fair Magnesia sprang : of Thrace the eighth 
His snow-white coursers from Thesprotia drove : 
From heaven-built Athens the ninth hero came : 
A huge Boeotian the tenth chariot filled. 
These, when the judges of the games by lot 
Had fix'd their order, and arranged their cars, 
All, at the trumpet's signal, all at once 
Burst from the barrier ; all together cheer'd 
Their fiery steeds, and shook the floating reins. 
Soon with the din of rattling cars was filled 
The sounding hippodrome, and clouds of dust 
Ascending, tainted the fresh breath of morn. 
Now mix'd and press'd together, on they drove, 
Nor spared the smarting lash ; impatient each 
To clear his chariot, and outstrip the throng 
Of dashing axles, and short-blowing steeds, 
They panted on each other's necks, and threw 
On each contiguous yoke the milky foam. 

" But to the pillar as he nearer drew, 
Orestes, reining-in the nearmost steed, 
While in a larger scope, with loosen'd reins, 
And lash'd up to their speed, the others flew, 
Turn'd swift around the goal his grazing wheel. 

" As yet erect, upon their whirling orbs 
Roll'd every chariot, till the hard-mouth'd steeds 
That drew the Thracian car, unmaster'd, broke 
With violence away, and turning short, 
(When o'er the hippodrome with winged speed 
They had completed now the seventh career), 
Dash'd their wild foreheads 'gainst the Lybian car. 
From this one luckless chance a train of ills 



IMPORTANCE OF DRIVING, ETC. 



173 



Succeeding 1 , rudely on each other fell 
Horses and charioteers, and soon was fill'd 
"With wrecks of shatter'd cars the Phocian plain. 

" This seen, the Athenian, with consummate art, 
His course obliquely veer'd, and, steering- wide 
With steady rein, the wild commotion pass'd 
Of tumbling chariots and tumultuous steeds. 
Next, and, though last, yet full of confidence 
And hopes of victory, Orestes came ; 
But when he saw of his antagonists 
Him only now remaining, to his mares 
Anxious he raised his stimulating voice. 
And now with equal fronts abreast they drove, 
Now with alternate momentary pride 
Beyond each other push'd their stretching- steeds. 

" Erect Orestes, and erect his car, 
Through all the number'd courses now had stood ; 
But luckless in the last, as round the goal 
The wheeling courser turn'd, the hither rein 
Imprudent he relax'd, and on the stone 
The shatter'd axle dashing, from the wheels 
Fell headlong ; hamper 'd in the tangling reins 
The frighted mares flew diverse o'er the course. 

"The throng'd assembly, when they saw the chief 
Hurl'd from his chariot, with compassion moved, 
His youth deplored ; deplored him, glorious late 
For mighty deeds, now doom'd to mighty woes ; 
Now dragg'd along the dust, his feet in air : 
Till, hasting to his aid, and scarce at length 
The frantic mares restraining, from the reins 
The charioteers released him, and convey'd, 
"With wounds and gore disfigured, to his friends. 
The just Amphictyons on the Athenian steeds 
The Delphic laurel solemnly conferr'd." 

In a political view, these games were productive of local 
advantages ; for, being sacred to Jupiter, they protected the 
inhabitants of Elis against all the calamities of war. In an 
; economical point of view, they were of general use ; for, as 
, Greece was generally short of horses, nothing was so likely to 
encourage the breeding of them as the emulation thus raised 
among the different states. The circulation of money also was 
not a trifling consideration ; for the olive crown was obtained 
at great expense. By these games being celebrated at the 



174 



DRIVING. 



beginning of every fifth year, the Greeks settled their chrono- 
logy and dates ; and as they lasted a thousand years, a great 
part of the traditional history of Greece rests upon their base. 
That the honour of the prize was above all price, the following 
anecdote shows : — A Spartan having gained the victory at the 
Olympic games with much difficulty, was asked what he should 
profit by it ? (( I shall have the honour/ 5 said he, " of being 
posted before my king in battle." As a further proof of the r 
value and the moral effect of these contentions for honour, it is j 
stated that, when a conqueror returned to his native city, he 
made his entry through a breach in the wall — by which was I 1 
implied that cities inhabited by such men had no need of walls. 

A senator of Rome, indeed, says Gibbon, " or even a citizen, 
conscious of his dignity, would have blushed to expose his I 
person or his horses in a Roman circus. There, the reins were 
abandoned to servile hands ; and, if the profits of a favourite 
charioteer sometimes exceeded those of an advocate, they were j 
considered as the effect of popular extravagance, and the high 
wages of a disgraceful profession/' The Romans, with more 
pride, were far less intellectual than the Greeks ; but it must 
still be borne in mind, that, inconsistently enough, the interest 
taken in the charioteers of Rome shook the very foundation 
of the government. 

In modern times, notwithstanding the sneers directed against 
gentlemen-coachmen and driving-clubs, it is to them chiefly 
that this country is indebted for the present excellent state of 
the roads, and for safe and expeditious travelling. The taste 1 
for driving produced, between men of property and those 
connected with the road, an intercourse which has been pro- 
ductive of the best results. Road-makers, and those who 
have the care of roads, if they have not acted under the 
immediate direction of these amateur drivers, have been greatly 
benefited by their advice — doubly valuable, as proceeding 
from knowledge of what a road ought to be. The intercourse 1 
also that has lately been carried on between proprietors of 
inns and of coaches, and gentlemen fond of driving, has J 



THE ROADS. 



175 



greatly tended to direct the attention of the former to the 
accommodation and comfort of travellers. The improvement 
in carriages — stage-coaches more especially — would never have 
arrived at its present height, but for the attention and sug- 
gestions of such persons. 

Moreover, the notice taken by gentlemen of coachmen, 
who are at once skilful and who conduct themselves well, has 
worked the reformation which has been of late years witnessed 
in that useful part of society. 

Gentleman-driving, however, has received a check, very few 
four-in-hands being visible. The B. D. C, or Benson Driving 
Club, which now holds its rendezvous at the Black Dog, Bed- 
font, is the only survivor of those numerous driving associa- 
tions whose processions used, some twenty years ago, to be 
among the most imposing, as well as peculiar spectacles in and 
about the metropolis.* 

THE ROADS. 

The excellence of our present mail-coach work reflects the 
highest credit on the state of our roads. The hills on great 
roads are now cut triangularly, so that drivers ascend nearly all 
of them in a trot. Coachmen have found out that they are 
gainers here, as, in the trot, every horse does his share, whereas, 
very few teams are all at work together when walking. 

As, however, dreadful accidents have occurred to coaches when 
descending hills, a very simple expedient has been suggested, 
by which these accidents may be avoided. It is merely a strip 
of gravel, or broken stone, about one yard wide, and four 
or five inches deep, left on the near side of the hill, and 
never suffered to bind or diminish. This would afford that 
additional friction (technically called a bite) to the two near-side 
wheels, so that the necessity of a drag-chain (never to be 
trusted) would be done away with, and even in case of a hame- 

* The reader will bear in mind that this is many years after date. The 
R.D.C., which is now in the " Crescent," promises an ascendant of no mean 
etfulgence.— Ed. Fifth Edition. 



176 



DRIVING. 



strap or pole-chain giving way, one wheel-horse would be able 
to hold back a coach, however heavily laden. No inconvenience 
to the road, it is observed, could arise from this precaution, as 
carriages ascending the hills would never be required to touch 
the loose gravel, it not being on their side of the road. This 
has been objected to, because some of the loose stones might 
find their way into the middle of the road. But, admitting 
this might be the case, a trifling attention on the part of the i 
surveyor wonld obviate the objection. A man might be em- 
ployed every second or third day to rake these stones back again. 
At the same time, it is obvious that the neat appearance of a 
road is not to be put in the scale against the limbs and lives of 
the people. — Some more permanent contrivance than loose 
stones even might be found. 

CARRIAGES. 

Of carriages, those with two wheels are the cheapest, lightest, 
and most expeditious ; but, however sure-footed the horse, and 
however skilful the driver, they are comparatively dangerous 
vehicles. 

As to gentlemen's carriages, in this country, it has justly been 
observed, that the view at Hyde Park Corner, on any fine after- 
noon, in the height of the London season, is enough to confound 
any foreigner, from whatever part of the world he may come. He 
may there see what no other country can show him. Let him 
only sit on the rail, near the statue, and in the space of two 
horns he will see a thousand well-appointed equipages pass before 
him to the Mall, in all the pomp of aristocratic pride, in which 
the horses themselves appear to partake. The stream of equi- 
pages of all kinds, barouches, chariots, cabriolets, &c, and » 
almost all got up Si regardless of expense," flows on unbroken 
until it is half-past seven, and people at last begin to think of 
what they still call dinner. Seneca tells us that such a blaze 
of splendour was once to be seen on the Appian Way. It might 
be so — it is now to be seen nowhere but in London. 

As to stage-coaches, their form seems to have arrived at 



CARRIAGES. 



177 



perfection. It combines prodigious strength with almost in- 
credible lightness ; many of them not weighing more than about 
18 cwt., and being kept so much nearer the ground than for- 
merly, they are of course considerably safer. Nothing, indeed, 
can be more favourable to safety than the build of modern 
coaches. The boots being let down between the springs, keep 
the load, and consequently the centre of gravity, low; the 
wheels of many of them are secured by patent boxes ; and in 
every part of them the best materials are used. The cost of 
coaches of this description is from ^130 to ^150 ; but they are 
generally hired from the maker at 2hd. to 3c?. per mile. 

It is said to be the intention of Government* to substitute 
light carriages with two horses for the present mail-coaches 
drawn by four. On this, a writer in the Quarterly Review ob- 
serves, that when the mail-coach of the present day starts from 
London for Edinburgh, a man may safely bet a hundred to one 
that she arrives to her time ; but let a light two-horse vehicle 
set out on the same errand, and the betting would strangely 
alter. It is quite a mistaken notion that a carriage is less 
liable to accidents for being light. On the contrary, she is more 
liable to them than one that is laden in proportion to her sus- 
taining powers. In the latter case, she runs steadily along, 
and is but little disturbed by any obstacle or jerk she may 
meet on the road : in the former, she is constantly on 
<s the jump," as coachmen call it, and her iron parts are very 
liable to snap. 

It may in this place be observed, that no stage-coach should 
be permitted to travel the road with wheels secured only by the 
common linchpin. It is in consequence of this that innumer- 
able accidents have happened to coaches from wheels coming 
s off; and in these improving and fast times, such chances should 
; not be allowed to exist. It may not be uninteresting to the 
umnitiated to learn from the same clever and experienced writer 
how a coach is worked. Suppose a number of persons to enter 

* The era of rail-roads has however now arrived, and there remains no neen 
for such an experiment.— Ed. Fifth Edition. 

N 



DRIVING. 



into a contract to horse a coach eighty miles, each proprietor 
having twenty miles ; in which case he is said to cover both 
sides of the ground, or to and fro. At the expiration of twenty- 
eight days a settlement takes place, and if the gross earnings of 
the coach be £10 per mile, there will be £800 to divide between 
the four proprietors, after the following charges have been de- 
ducted, viz., tolls, duty to government, mileage (or hue of the 
coach to the coach-makers), two coachmen* s wages, porters' 
wages, rent or charge of booking-offices at each end, and wash- 
ing the coaches. These charges may amount to £150, which 
leaves ,£650 to keep eighty horses, and to pay the horse-keepers 
for a period of twenty-eight days, or nearly £160 to each pro- 
prietor for the expenses of his twenty horses, being £2 per week 
per horse. Thus it appears that a fast coach properly appointed 
cannot pay, unless its gross receipts amount to £10 per double 
mile ; and that even then the proprietor's profits depend on the 
luck he has with his stock. 

COACH-HORSES. 

A great change has lately taken place as to the English 
coach-horse ; and this is the foundation of many other accom- 
panying changes. Fifty years ago, the putting a thorough-bred 
horse into harness would have been deemed preposterous. In 
the carriages of gentlemen, the long-tailed black, or Cleveland 
bay — each one remove from the cart-horse — was the prevailing 
sort ; and six miles an hour was the extent of the pace. Now, 
however, this clumsy-barrelled, cloddy-shouldered, round-legged 
animal, something between a coach and a dray horse, as fat as 
an ox, and, with all his prancing at first starting, not capable of 
more than six miles an hour, and rendered useless by a day's 
hard work, is no more seen ; and, instead of him, we find a 
horse as tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slanting in 
the shoulders, flat in the legs, with more strength, and with 
treble the speed. 

The animal formerly in use cost from 301. to 50Z. — Two hun- 
dred guineas is now an every- day price for a cabriolet horse ; and 



COACH-HORSES. 



179 



L50 guineas for a coach-horse, for a private gentleman's work. 
A pair of handsome coach-horses, fit for London, and well 
broken and bitted, cannot be purchased under 200 guineas ; 
and even job-masters often give much more for them to let out 
to their customers. The origin of this superior kind of coach- 
horse is still, however, the Cleveland ba}^ confined principally 
to Yorkshire and Durham, with perhaps Lincolnshire on one 
side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to be met 
with pure in either county. Cleveland indeed, and the Yale of 
Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, are the best breed- 
ing counties in England for coach-horses, hunters, and hackneys. 

T Yhen the Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth or 
thorough-bred horse of sufficient substance and height, the pro- 
duce is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest 
and high action. From the same mare and the thorough-bred 
of sufficient height, but not of so much substance, we obtain 
the four-in-hand, and superior curricle horse. From less 
height and more substance, we derive the hunter, and better 
sort of hackney. From the half-bred, we have the machiner, 
the poster, and the common carriage-horse. 

The best coach-horse is a tall, strong, over-sized hunter. The 
hackney has many of the qualities of the hunter on a small scale. 
There is some deception, however, even as to the best of these 
improved coach-horses. They prance nobly through the streets, 
and they are capable of more work than the old clumsy, sluggish 
breed, but still they have not the endurance that is desirable ; 
and a pair of poor post-horses, at the end of the second day, 
would beat them hollow. 

In this carriage-horse, the bending of the upper joints, and 
the consequent high Hfting of the feet, are deemed an excellence, 
because they add to the grandeur of his appearance ; but this is 
necessarily accompanied by much wear and tear of the legs and 
i feet, the effect of which is very soon apparent, The most de- 
sirable points in the coach-horse are — substance well placed, a 
deep and well-proportioned body, bone under the knee, and 
sound, open, tough feet. 



180 



DRIVING. 



One part of the old system, however, remains — namely, that 
although little horses, well bred, are the fashion, large horses 
are still employed in heavy work. It must indeed be so. Horses 
draw by their weight, and not by the force of their muscles, 
although these, by carrying forward the centre of gravity, assist 
the application of that weight. It is the weight of the animal 
which produces the draught, and the power of the muscles serves 
to direct it. The hind feet form the fulcrum of the lever by 
which this weight acts against a load, and the power exerted is 
in proportion to the length of the lever, if the weight remains 
the same. Large animals, therefore, draw more than small ones, 
though they may have less muscular power, and are unable to 
carry weight so well. Nothing can better show that horses draw 
by their weight than the frequent occurrence that a horse is un- 
able to draw a cart out of a slough until a sack of corn is thrown 
on his back, when he has little difficulty in doing it. Thus it is* 
that what are technically called lobbing-goers take more weight 
with them than horses of better action. 

As the application of the weight or force proceeds from the 
fulcrum formed by the hind feet, good hind legs and well-spread 
gaskins are essential points in a coach-horse. We even some- 
times see that a waggon-horse, when brought to pull, will not 
touch the ground at all with his fore feet. Another reason why 
little horses are unfit for heavy work is, that they will seldom 
walk and draw at the same time ; for if they walk, they catch at 
their collars, and do but little. They never take anything like 
an even share of draught. 

By calculations as to the mean strength of animals, it appears 
that a horse drawing horizontally, and at the rate of two miles 
and a half in an hour, can work for eight hours in succession 
against a resistance of 200 pounds. If that pace be quadrupled, 
he finds an eighth part of the time sufficient. Thus we can 
pretty nearly measure a horse's power in harness. Whether 
we are carrying supposed improvement too far, and sacrificing 
strength and endurance to speed, is a question not difficult to 
be resolved. 



COACH-HORSES. 



181 



A horse at a pull is enabled, by the power and direction of 
his muscles, to throw a certain weight against the collar. If he 
walk four miles in the hour, part of the muscular energy is ex- 
pended in the act of walking ; and consequently, the power of 
drawing must be proportionally diminished. If he trot eight 
miles in the hour, more of that energy is expended in the trot, 
and less remains for the draught ; but the draught continues the 
same, and, to enable him to accomplish his work, he must exert 
his energies in a degree so severe and cruel, that it must speedily 
wear him out. Hence, there is no truth so easily proved, or so 
painfully felt by the postmaster, as that it is the pace that kills. 
Moreover, many a horse used on our public roads is unable to 
employ all his natural power, or to throw his weight into the 
collar, in consequence of being tender-footed, or lame. Being 
bought, however, at little price, he is worked on the brutal prin- 
ciple that he may be " whipped sound V s — and so he is appa- 
rently. At first he sadly halts; but, urged by the torture of the 
lash, he acquires a peculiar mode of going. The faulty limb 
keeps pace with the others, but no stress or labour is thrown 
upon it ; and he gradually contrives to make the sound limbs 
perform among them all the duties of the unsound one. Thus 
he is barbarously " whipped sound," and cruelty is for the time 
undeservedly rewarded. After all, however, what is done? Three 
legs are made to do that which was almost too much for four. 
Of course, they are most injuriously strained, and quickly worn 
out ; the general power of the animal is rapidly exhausted ; and, 
at no remote time, death releases him from his merciless perse- 
cutors. 

Happily, art is doing what humanity refuses. Railroads are 
rendering draught comparatively easy. An instance has been 
described of the power of a horse when assisted by art, as exhi- 
bited near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, 
a wager was laid that a common horse could draw thirty-six tons 
for six miles along the road, drawing his weight from a dead pull, 
and turning it round the occasional windings of the road. A 
numerous party assembled near Merstham to see this. Twelve 



DRIVING. 



waggons loaded with stones, each waggon weighing above three 
tons, were chained together, and a horse taken promiscuously 
from a timber cart, was yoked to the train. He started from a 
house near Merstham, and drew the chain of waggons with ap- 
parent ease almost to the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six 
miles, in one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the 
rate of four miles an horn. In the course of the journey he 
stopped four times, to show that it was not by any advantage of 
descent that his power was facilitated: and, after each stoppage, 
he again drew off the chain of waggons with great ease. A person 
who had wagered on the power of the horse then desired that 
four more loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade, 
and with these the same horse set off again with undiminished 
pace. Still further to show the effect of the railway in facili- 
tating motion, the attending workmen, to the number of fifty, 
were directed to mount on the waggons, and the horse proceeded 
without the least distress. Indeed, there appeared to be scarcely 
any limit to the power of his draught. After this trial, the 
waggons were taken to the weighing-machine, and it appeared 
that the whole weight was as follows : — 

tons. cwt. qrs. 

12 waggons first linked tog-ether . . . SS 4 2 
4 ditto, afterwards attached . . . 13 2 
Supposed weight of fifty labourers . .400 

55 6 2 



It is fortunate for breeders of horses that a perfect form is not 
necessary to a good coach-horse. Some of those, indeed, which 
the London dealers sell at high prices for gentlemen's work, are 
such brutes, when out of harness, that no man would ride them 
for their worth. The strong and lengthy shoulder, with well- 
bent hind legs, are not absolutely necessary: and a good head 
and tail, with a little high action, are all that is essential. 

The following are useful hints for purchasers of coach-horses : 
No gentleman should purchase a horse without a good trial of 
his mouth and temper. To be perfect in the first respect, he 
should be what is called on the road " a cheek horse/' — that is. 



COACH-HORSES, 



183 



should require very little curb, should always be at play with his 
bit, and yet not afraid of it, and should have each side of his 
mouth alike. To a gentleman's leader, a good mouth is most 
essential, and then, the higher his courage, the safer he is to 
drive. With stage-coach horses, mouth is not of so much con- 
sequence, because they are always running home, and there is 
no turning and twisting, as in gentlemen's work, which is often 
in a crowd, A whistle, or a click with the tongue, should make 
a gentleman's leader spring to his collar in an instant : one that 
requires the whip should be discharged. 

With wheel horses which are steady, and hold well, a coach- 
man may almost set his leaders at defiance ; but if they are 
otherwise, danger is at hand. It is not a bad plan to purchase 
wheelers out of coaches, after they have been about six months 
in regular work. For from sixty to eighty guineas, the best of 
any man's stock may be picked; and a sound, well-broke coach- 
horse is not dear at that price. The coach-horses of gentlemen 
should be high in flesh, as it enhances their appearance, and is 
no obstacle to pace. A sound five-year-old horse, with good legs 
and feet, and driven only in harness, will last, on an average, 
from six to ten years in gentlemen's work, and will afterwards 
be very useful for other purposes. 

The average price of horses for fast stages is about 231. Fancy 
teams, and those working out of London, may be rated consider- 
ably higher ; but, taking a hundred miles of ground, well horsed, 
this is about the mark. The average period of each horse's ser- 
vice does not exceed four years in a fast coach — perhaps scarcely 
so much. In a slow one, it may extend to seven. In both cases, 
horses are supposed to be put to the work at five or six years old. 
The price named as the average may appear a low one ; but 
blemished horses find their way into coaches, as do those of bad 
temper, &c. As no labour, while it lasts, is harder than that of 
coach-horses in fast work, it is wrong to purchase those which 
are infirm, as many proprietors do. Generally speaking, such 
horses are out of their work half their time, and are certain to 
die in their owner's debt. As the roads now are, blind horses 



184 



DRIVING. 



are less objectionable than infirm ones. A blind horse that goes 
up to his bit is both pleasanter and safer to drive than one with 
good eyes that hangs away from his work. Blind horses, how- 
ever, work best in the night. 

A horse cannot be called a coach-horse unless he has good legs 
and feet. As a wheel-horse, he is never to be depended upon 
down hill, if he has not sound limbs. He cannot resist weight* 
if he be weak in his joints. To bad legs and feet are owing 
numerous accidents to coaches, many of which the public hear 
nothing of. If horses, on the contrary, have good legs and feet, 
they will last, even in the fastest work, many years, provided 
they are shod with care, and well looked after. Proprietors of 
coaches have at length found out that it is their interest to be 
humane and liberal to their horses, because the hay and corn 
market is not so expensive as the horse market. They have, 
therefore, one horse in four always at rest ; in other words, each 
horse lies still on the fourth day. Generally considered, per- 
haps, no animal toiling solely for the profit of man, leads so 
comfortable a life as the English coach-horse : he is sumptuously 
fed, kindly treated, and if he does suffer a little in his work, he 
has mostly twenty-three hours in the twenty-four of perfect ease; 
he is now almost a stranger to the lash, nor do we ever see him 
with a broken skin. No horse lives so high as a coach-horse. 
Hunters, in the hunting season, do not eat the quantity of corn 
that coach-horses do; for the former are feverish after their 
work, which is not the case with the latter, as they become 
accustomed to this almost daily excitement. In the language of 
the road, the coach-horse's stomach is the measure of his corn — 
he is fed ad libitum* The effect of this is that he soon gathers 
flesh, even in this severe work, — for there is none more severe 
while it lasts ; and good flesh is no obstacle to speed, but the 
contrary. 

It is not found, however, that (barring contagious diseases) 

* Some coachmasters give their horses all manger-meat ; but this is wrong, 
as it often produces indigestion and disease. A certain portion of long hay is 
necessary. 



HARNESS. 



185 



where their owners are good judges of condition, coach-horses 
are much subject to disease. After a hot summer, coach-horses 
are most liable to derangement ; and the month of October is 
the worst in the year for them, in consequence of it being their 
moulting season. Coach-horses, indeed, are certain to sweat 
three days out of four, which keeps their blood pure, and ren- 
ders almost unnecessary medicine, of which, in general, they 
have but a small portion — perhaps less than they should have. 
It is a mistake, however, that fleshy horses cannot go fast in 
harness ; they are more powerful in draught than thin ones ; and, 
having only themselves to carry, flesh does not injure their legs, 
as in riding. In a fast coach, then, a horse ought not to work 
more than four days without rest, as he becomes leg-weary, and 
wears out the sooner ; and he becomes also too highly excited. 
A horse a mile, reckoning only one side of the ground, is about 
the proportion. Thus we may suppose that ten horses work 
the coach up and down a ten-mile stage, which gives eight at 
work, and two at rest. Every horse, then, rests the fourth day. 
In slow, heavy work, however, coach-horses will do their ground 
every day, barring accidents or illness. 

In slow work, the average duration of coaching stock may be 
from six to seven years, provided they are at first fresh, and firm 
on their legs. In fast work, their time may be from three to 
four years, or scarcely perhaps so much. Coach proprietors on 
a large scale should have a break for their young horses, 
previous to going into regular work. The practice of putting a 
young horse unaccustomed to harness into a coach laden with 
passengers is most reprehensible ; and when injury is sustained 
by it, it should be visited by the severest penalties the law can 
inflict. 

HARNESS. 

In the manufacture of harness we have arrived at a degree of 
perfection, to which the invention of the patent shining leather 
has mainly contributed. A handsome horse well harnessed is a 
noble sight ; yet in no country, except England, is the art of 



186 



DRIVING. 



putting a horse into harness at all understood. If, however, 
our road horses were put to their coaches in the loose awkward 
fashion of the continental people, we could not travel at the I 
rate we do. It is the command given over the coach-horse that ' 
enables us to do it. 

In regard to mails, it should be observed that the proprietors 
who horse them are not sufficiently attentive to the state of the :• 
harness on the ground worked by night ; whereas it should in 
reality be the best. If anything break by daylight, it is in- 
stantly observed ; but it is not so in the night, as lamp -light is 
uncertain and treacherous. In speaking of particulars, it may 
be observed, that bearing-reins are a relief to the arm of the 
driver, but by no means to the horses. Indeed, they materially 
lessen the power of horses in drawing, become insufferable to 
them in a long journey, and fatigue them much sooner than 
they would otherwise be. Not only do these reins by no means i 
serve to keep horses up ; but they prevent their rising after 
having fallen. 

When a wheel-horse has the habit of throwing up his head, 
which greatly annoys the mouth of the leader before him, a 
nose-martingale should be used. This, however, is rarely suffi- 
cient. Indeed, it is a bad custom to run the leader's reins ! 
through terrets over the heads of the wheelers ; for then every j 
movement which the wheelers make with their heads, acts i 
powerfully on the mouths of the leaders, whether they be good 
or bad. If the former, it is sometimes attended with danger : ■ 
thus, a wheeler throws up his head, suddenly and powerfully V 
shortens the rein of the leader, who is checked, and as the ' 
wheeler goes on, he brings the bar with force against the hocks ~ 
of the leader, which instantly flies forward, and mischief ensues. I 

This, perhaps, does not last long ; but one evil only takes 
the place of another : leaders soon learn to be, from custom, ; 
equally heedless of this check and of their driver's hand : and 
their mouths become steeled by the constant tossing of the 
wheeler's heads. It is thus that we sometimes hear of leaders 
choosing their own road in spite of the best efforts of good s 



HARNESS. 



187 



coachmen; and so it will always be till terrets are totally 
abolished. This may easily be done by conducting the leader's 
rein through the rosette in which the wheeler's outside bearing- 
rein, of which we have just disapproved, at present passes, and 
thus supersede the terret. 

Terrets, however, are supposed to look well, and to have the 
advantage of keeping the head steady. To obviate their disad- 
vantages, therefore, in some measure, rollers are placed in the 
bottom of each terret, over which the rein passes. This, in 
some degree, obviates the evil, as the rein no longer holds in the 
terret, but slides easily, giving the wheeler's head more freedom. 
In all kinds of work, a tool-box is a necessary appendage to the 
coach. It should contain a strong screw-wrench, wheel and 
spring clips, a spring shackle or two, with bolts and nuts, and 
two chains — one for a trace, and the other shorter, with a ring 
at one end and hook at the other, in case of a tug giving way. 
In his pocket the coachman should have a short strap with a 
buckle at each end, as in case of almost any part of the reins, 
or indeed most parts of the harness breaking, it comes into use 
in a moment. 

The following are interesting extracts on this subject, from 
an article in a late number of the Quarterly Review j and the 
work quoted and referred to in the article is intitled Bubbles 
from the Brunnens of Nassau. " With regard to the manage- 
ment of horses in harness, perhaps the most striking feature to 
English eyes is, that the Germans intrust these sensible animals 
with the free use of their eyes. ' As soon as, getting tired, or, 
as we are often apt to term it, lazy, they see the postilion 
threaten them with his whip, they know perfectly well the 
limits of his patience, and that after eight, ten, or twelve threats, 
there will come a blow. As they travel along, one eye is always 
shrewdly watching the driver ; the moment he begins his slow 
operation of lighting his pipe, they immediately slacken their 
pace, knowing as well as Archimedes could have proved, that he 
cannot strike fire and them at the same time : every move- 
ment in the carriage they remark; and to any accurate ob- 



188 



DRIVING. 



server who meets a German vehicle, it must often be per- 
fectly evident that the poor horses know and feel, even better 
than himself, that they are drawing a coachman, three bulky 
baronesses, their man and their maid, and that to do this on a 
hot summer's day is no joke.' 

" Now, what is our method ? ( In order to break-in the 
animal to draught, we put a collar round his neck, a crupper 
under his tail, a pad on his back, a strap round his belly, with 
traces at his sides ; and, lest he should see that, though these 
things tickle and pinch, they have not power to do more, the 
poor intelligent creature is blinded with blinkers, and in this 
fearful state of ignorance, with a groom or two at his head, 
and another at his side, he is, without his knowledge, fixed 
to the pole and splinter-bar of a carriage. If he kick, even 
at a fly, he suddenly receives a heavy punishment which he 
does not comprehend ; something has struck him, and has hurt 
him severely; but, as fear magnifies all danger, so, for aught 
we know or care, he may fancy that the splinter-bar which has 
cut him is some hostile animal, and expects, when the pole 
bumps against his legs, to be again assailed in that direction. 
Admitting that in time he gets accustomed to these phenomena 
—becoming, what we term, steady in harness, still, to the last 
hour of his existence, he does not clearly understand what it is 
that is hampering him, or what is that rattling noise which 
is always at his heels; — the sudden sting of the whip is a 
pain with which he gets but too well acquainted, yet the unde 
derivator of the sensation he cannot explain — he neither knows 
when it is coming, nor what it comes from. If any trifling 
accident or even irregularity occurs — if any little harmless strap 
which ought to rest upon his back happens to fall to his side, 
the unfortunate animal, deprived of his eyesight, the natural 
lanterns of the mind, is instantly alarmed ; and, though from 
constant heavy draught he may literally, without metaphor, be 
on his last legs, yet if his blinkers should happen to fall off, the 
sight of his own dozing master, of his own pretty mistress, and 
of his own fine yellow chariot in motion, would scare him so 



RELATIVE PLACES OF HORSES. 



189 



dreadfully, that off he would probably start, and the more they 
all pursued hiin the faster would he fly !' " 



In placing horses in a team, we speak of near and off horses. 
The term of " near 93 is probably a borrowed one. In a waggon, 
the near horse is the one which is nearest the driver, who 
always walks with the horses to his right hand ; and the other, 
running abreast of him, is called the off or far horse, because 
he is the farthest from the driver. This term indeed does not 
refer to coaching so well as to waggoning, as the coachman 
does not walk by the side of his horses ; but many of the terms 
of coachmanship are drawn from the same source, and the ex- 
pression " near " horse seems to be among the number. 

The word " near " having been thus made use of in its ori- 
ginal acceptation, has, in some counties, gradualy superseded 
the word left, in conti'adistinction to right; as we hear oc- 
casionally of the " near side of the road," the " near wheel of 
a carriage," the "near leg of ahorse in short, it is substituted 
for the word left. Or the term may have arisen intermediately 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATE LXI. 



10. Rosette. 

11. Throat-lash. 

12. Bearing-rein roller. 

13. Front piece, or fore-top. 

14. Bearing-rein. 

15. Hames. 

16. Hame-tug. 

17. Collar. 

18. Hame-terret. 



1. Face-strap. 

2. Terret for the leader's rein. 

3. Leader's rein. 

4. Head-piece. 

5. Hame-strap. 

6. Bearing-rein hook. 

7. Winker. 

8. Cheek-strap. 

9. Nose-strap. 



19. Wheeler's rein. 

20. Crupper. 

21. Pad. 

22. Terret for wheeler's rein. 

23. Belly-band. 

24. Trace-bearer. 

25. Trace-buckle. 

26. Trace. 

27. False belly-band. 

28. Bit. 

29. Swirel-hook. 

30. Pole-hook. 

31. Pole-chain. 

32. Pole. 

33. Shackle or swing-bars. 

34. Tug. 

35. Splinter-bar. 



RELATIVE PLACES OF HORSES. 



190 



DRIVING. 



from this : that on the first introduction of carriages into this 
country there was no driving on the box, but on the saddle, and 
that hence the term " near 99 was used to distinguish the saddle- 
horse, and the term " off," of course, the other horse. These 
terms were afterwards applied to the road, where, in meeting 
carriages, according to the adage, "If you go to the left, 
you are sure to go right; — if you go to the right you are 
wrong." 

Wheel-horses have the hardest place, as they are at work up 
hill and down. Nevertheless, if favour be shown, it must be to 
the leaders, because a tired wheeler may be dragged home ; but, 
in the road phrase, if a leader cuts it, you are planted. It is a 
rule always to put the freest leader on the near side, as he is 
better in hand than on the other. If a leader be weak, and 
cannot take his bar, the wheeler that follows him must be tied 
up, and this will place him by the side of his partner. Leaders 
should be fast trotters for fast coaches ; for, if they gallop, the 
bars are never at rest, and consequently much of the draught is 
lost in the angles described. To a coach-horse in fast work, 
wind is almost as essential as to a hunter. Many high-blowers, 
however, keep their time very well, with a little attention on 
the part of the driver. If he see them distressed, he ought to 
keep them off their collar, and let them only carry their harness 
for a hundred yards or so, when they will recover, if their con- 
dition be good. They work best as night-horses ; and, if driven 
in the heat of the sun, they ought to be out of the throat-lash. 
Indeed, a leader should never be throat-lashed in very hot 
weather, if he can be driven without it. Many horses pull, and 
are unpleasant in it, but go temperately out of it. 

In coach-horses, temper is much to be regarded. Some con- 
tend that a horse should never know his place, — should go 
either wheeler, or leader, and on either side. If, however, a 
horse working constantly in a coach prefer any place, he should 
have it, and he will generally pay for the indulgence. Some 
horses, indeed, care not where they are put — working equally 
well or ill in all places. As to the mode of putting young 



RELATIVE PLACES OF HORSES. 



191 



horses in harness, the best way is to put one, for the first time, 
with only one other, which ought to be steady, good- collared, 
and quick. A great deal of room should be given his head, 
and he should be driven at the cheek of an easy bit, with his 
pole-piece rather slack. There is great want of judgment in 
throat-lashing a young horse — either wheeler or leader. 

Many horses go perfectly quiet as leaders, that would never 
go as wheelers, because they will not bear being confined by 
the pole-piece. All ought to have their sides frequently changed, 
particularly young ones. As to horses' mouths, some will not 
bear a curb -chain at all, while the bars and chins of others are 
so hard, that it is difficult to make an impression upon them ; 
the latter being most prevalent. 

It is difficult, however, to handle a coach-horse, particularly 
a leader, whose mouth is very tender. A snaffle is not safe, as, 
in case of his dropping or bolting, it has not sufficient power to 
catch him up quickly, at such a distance from the driver's hand. 
For a gig-horse, it may occasionally answer. The usual plan 
then is to " cheek, him," as it is technically called, that is, to 
put his coupling-rein to the cheek instead of the bottom of the 
bit. Should this be severe for him, and he swing his head too 
much towards his partner, his draught-rein should be put down 
to the bit, which will bring him straight. He should have 
liberty in his bearing-rein, and his curb-chain shoidd not be 
tight. A check-rein to a nose -martingale is often of service in 
this case, as it keeps his head steady, and makes him face his 
work. Such horses in general work more pleasantly out of the 
throat-lash. 

Horses with very hard mouths require the bit with double 
port, the Chiffney bit, or the plan of putting the curb-chain 
over the tongue instead of under the chin, which in some pre- 
vents what is termed a dead mouth. Letting out the head of 
the bridle in the middle of a stage, has also considerable effect, 
as causing the bit and curb-chain to take hold in a fresh place. 
A check-rein likewise is sometimes put to the middle link 
of the curb-chain, to retain the bit in the middle of the 



192 



DRIVING. 



;mouth, and to keep it alive, as it is termed. In hard pullers, 
moreover, putting the bearing-rein to the top, and the coupling- 
rein to the lowest loop in the bit, creates a counter-action, not 
only making the bit more severe, but keeping the mouth in 
play. A hard puller is generally safest, and more in place be- 
fore the bars than at wheel ; for, with a good pair of wheel- 
horses, leaders are soon checked, and he pulls less with a free 
than with a slack partner. 

A coach-horse, if obedient to the hand, cannot well carry his 
head too high, while a horse that goes with his head down has a 
mean appearance in harness. The horse, however, that carries 
his head higher than his partner, should have his coupling-rein 
uppermost. A coach-horse should not be broken in a fast 
coach, as in fast work there is no time to try his temper, and 
to humour him. By being put at first into quick work, many 
horses get into a habit of cantering, and never trot well after- 
wards. 

A kicking wheel-horse should be put on the near side, where 
he is less liable to be touched by any thing that might annoy him ; 
for, on the off side, throwing the reins on his back, or touching 
his tail when getting any thing out of the boot, may set him off, 
and cause mischief. — A kicking leader should have a ring on the 
reins, for many accidents arise by a leader's getting a rein under 
his tail, owing to the want of this. With first-rate coachmen, 
however, this precaution is the less essential, that they generally 
have their horses better in hand. With horses very fresh in 
condition it sometimes happens, especially in a turn, that a 
wheeler kicks over his trace, and an accident is sometimes the 
consequence. A light hip-strap prevents this, by taking the 
trace up with him when he rises. In London, this is particularly 
useful ; for, when horses are turning short, or in a crowd, they 
frequently have their traces slack, and therefore more easily 
kicked over. The hip-strap looks slow, but it is safe. 



COACHMEN. 



193 



COACHMEN. 

Of late years, a superior class of men form our coachmen ; and 
for this we are mainly indebted, first, to the driving clubs, and 
the notice taken of coachmen by men of fortune ; and, secondly, 
to the boxes being placed on springs. The latter renders it a 
common practice for passengers to pay an extra shilling for the 
box-place, whereas formerly a man would have given something 
to be any where else. We are told that good coachmen are be- 
coming, in proportion to their number, more scarce every year, 
because, owing to the fine state of the roads, the condition of 
the cattle, and the improved method of road-work, coach- 
horses are so above their work, that the assistance of the driver 
is seldom required. When in town, says a writer in the Sport- 
ing Magazine, " 1 sometimes take a peep at the mails coming 
up to the Gloucester Coffee-house ; and such a set of spoons 
are, I should hope, difficult to be found : they are all legs and 
wings ; not one of them has his horses in hand ; and they sit 
on their boxes — as if they were sitting on something else." 

Certain it is that coach-work in perfection is not to be seen 
a hundred miles from the metropolis — seldom so far. The 
build of coaches, the manufacture of harness, and the stamp and 
condition of horses are greatly inferior in the northern counties ; 
and as to the coachmen, few that at all deserve the appellation. 
There are few things in which knowledge of an art without 
execution is of less value than in driving four-in-hand; for, 
although a coachman may have knowledge, it is possible that, 
from natural awkwardness, he may be unable to put it into 
practical effect with a neat and appropriate movement of his 
arms and hands ; and seldom is a certain propriety and neat- 
ness more required than in handling the reins and whip. To 
make a man a good driver, there is one requisite, and that is, 
what are called on the roads " hands " — a nice faculty of touch. 
No man with a hard, heavy hand can ever make a good horse- 
man or driver. Neither will a nervous man ever be safe on a 

o 



194 



DRIVING. 



coach-box, for presence of mind and strong nerve are there very 
often called into action. 

The air and manner of a coachman have been cleverly de- 
scribed by some periodical writers. Let us, say they, suppose 
the horses put to their coach, all ready for a start — the reins 
thrown across the off wheel-horse's loins, with the ends hanging 
upon the middle terret of his pad, and the whip thrown across 
the backs of the wheelers. — The coachman makes his appear- 
ance. If he be a coachman, a judge will immediately perceive 
it ; for, as a certain philosopher observes, " every situation in 
life serves for formation of character," and none more so than 
a coachman's. I was going to say — only let a judge see him 
come out of his office, pulling on his glove ; but this I will say 
- — let one see him walk round his horses, alter a coupling-rein, 
take up his whip and reins, and mount his box, and he will at 
once pronounce him a neat, or an awkward one. — The moment 
he has got his seat and made his start, you are struck with the 
perfect mastership of his art — the hand just over his left thigh, 
the arm without constraint, steady, and with a holding com- 
mand, that keeps his horses like clockwork, yet, to a super- 
ficial observer, with reins quite loose. So firm and compact 
is he, that you seldom observe any shifting, except perhaps to 
take a shorter purchase for a run down hill, which he accom- 
plishes with confidence and skill untinctured with imprudence. 

In a coachman, temper is also one of the essentials to a 
good workman. — We are told of a great artist, that, having four 
" rum ones " to deal with, and being unable to make them work 
to please him, he threw the reins on the footboard, and ex- 
claimed, " Now, d — n your eyes, divide it among you, for I will 
be troubled with you no longer." The impertinences of pas- 
sengers sometimes increase this irritability. In steam-vessels, 
they adopt the plan of writing in large letters on the wheel 
which directs the helm, " Do not talk to the helmsman." It 
would be as well in some coaches to have the same rule adopted 
— " Do not babble to the coachman." 

It is not possible to obtain a better idea of a good coachman 



COACHMEN. 



195 



than from the following account of one who is said to be the 
first coachman in England for bad horses. " Having all his 
life had moderate horses — some strong and heavy, some light 
and blood-like, old hunters, old posters, — most of the teams 
going and returning, — their work at the utmost stretch, always 
overpowering, — having also had always, besides difference in 
character, weak horses to nurse, — this ordeal has worn him 
down to a pattern of patience. With these, and great weight 
upon severe ground, he is steady, easy, very economical in 
thong and cord, very light-handed and sometimes playful. — I 
observed him closely, and discovered from his remarks, as well 
as from what I saw, that his great secret of keeping his nags in 
any thing like condition, and preserving them when apparently 
worn out, is by putting them properly together, by constantly 
shifting their situations, and by the use of check-reins with re- 
markable judgment — by which means he brings their powers 
as near to equality as possible, besides preventing the evil of 
boring. Indeed, his horses all go light and airy ; and though 
at times his hold of necessity becomes powerful, yet, generally 
speaking, he takes his load without a severe strain upon his 
arms. — I own it is this particular knack which always wins me. 
Both in driving and riding, give me the man who can accomplish 
his object with a light hand." 

The duty of a coachman is apt to injure the eyes — particularly 
in cold blowing weather. He must keep his eye forward ; and 
it is found that the sight cannot be fixed upon any thing be- 
yond the head of the wheel-horses (not so far as this, in short 
men,) without raising the eyelids, and consequently exposing 
the eyes to the weather. Six parts of cold spring water, to one 
of brandy, is a good lotion when the eyes suffer from this 
cause. — Coachmen should also preserve their feet and bodies 
from cold. In very cold weather, the chin should be protected 
by a shawl, and the knees by thick cloth knee-caps. In very 
severe weather, the breast should be protected ; for which pur- 
pose hare-skins are now manufactured, and are getting into use 
on the road. 

o2 



196 



DRIVING. 



A coachman ought not to drive more than seventy miles a 
day ; and. if this is done at two starts, so much the better. 
The wearing of the frame, under daily excitement, must tend to 
produce premature old age, and to shorten life ; and this excite- 
ment must be very considerable when a man drives a fast coach 
eighty or a hundred miles a day without a stop — particularly if 
his coach be strongly opposed. Coachmen who wish to keep 
themselves light, take walking exercise in their hours of rest 
from road- work. 

As to amateur coachmen, it has been observed, that if a diet 
were formed, before whom gentlemen-coachmen were to be 
examined previous to their being considered safe, it would not 
be amiss if they were put to the test of having the harness of 
four horses taken to pieces, strap from strap, and then requested 
to put it together again in the presence of the judges. There 
would be no hesitation in pronouncing him safe who succeeded 
in this, as his experience on the road must have been consider- 
able. How these amateurs are trusted with the reins, coach- 
men are now obliged to be careful, owing to the speed of coaches, 
and the improved breed and condition of coach-horses. Hence, 
we see fewer amateurs at work than formerly. It would indeed 
be highly culpable in a coachman to trust the lives of pas- 
sengers and his master's property to any one whom he did not 
know to be safe, or even without reflecting that a man may be a 
very safe coachman with horses he knows, and a very unsafe 
one on some roads with horses to which he is a stranger. 

To gentlemen who wish to drive, and are really capable of 
doing so, the following is recommended as not a very bad way 
of doing business : — %( When travelling with a coachman I do 
not know/' says an amateur, '* I always adopt the following 
plan — that is, if I wish to work. In the first place, I never got 
upon a coach-box yet with any thing like half-pay about me : 
*uch as a black handkerchief around my neck, or in blue panta- 
loons ; neither do I think I ever shall. I always take care to 
have a good deal of drag about me : — a neat pair of boots, and 
knee-caps, if cold weather : a good drab surtout — if not a 



COACHMEN. 



197 



poodle ; a benjamin or two about the coach, and a little of the 
spot about the neck. For the first mile, I always observe a 
strict silence, unless broken by coach ee ; but at this time he 
generally runs mute. He is perhaps but just awake, or is con- 
sidering about his way-bill — reckoning his passengers, thinking 
what he has to do on the road, and, if a workman, looking over 
his team to see if all is right. Leave him alone for a short time, 
and when his mind is at ease, he will look you over as you sit 
beside him. He will begin with your boots, proceeding up- 
wards to the crown of your hat, and if he like you, and you 
make a remark or two that please him, and show 3 011 to be a 
judge of the art, the first time he stops he will say — 6 Now, sir, 
have you got your driving gloves on ; would you like to take 
'em?' — I am here alluding to country work, and not to the 
roads near London." 

Coachmen's expenses on the road being heavy, should be 
taken into consideration by passengers. They have their horse- 
keepers to pay every week, or they will not do their best for 
them ; and the wear and tear of their clothes is a heavy tax on 
their pockets. They are satisfied, however, with one shilling 
under, and two shillings for anything over, thirty miles ; and 
they are well entitled to that sum — more especially when we 
recollect that they are liable to have empty coaches. No man, 
certainly, should give them less than a shilling, and if he often 
travel the same road, his money is not ill bestowed. In re- 
spectable coaches, no great difference is now made between the 
fees given by in and outside passengers, as it often happens that 
the latter are best able to pay. 

Guards on mail coaches are necessary appendages to the 
establishment ; and, that they may be equal to their duty, they 
go only moderate distances — as from sixty to eighty miles, 
when they are relieved by others. Those on the long stages, 
however, are imposed upon by their masters ; and, by being 
made to do more than they are equal to — many of them two 
nights up for one in bed, are half their time asleep. Some go 
from London to Exeter, Shrewsbury, and other places equally 



193 



DRIVING. 



distant, without stopping more than three quarters of an hour 
on the road, which, in bad weather, is hard enough. Indeed, it 
is wonderful how with their means they always contrive to live. 

Guards are by no means useless appendages to stage coaches ; 
for no coach, running a long distance and in the night, should 
be without one ; but such guards should be provided with fire- 
arms in good repair. Setting aside the idea of highway rob- 
bery, it is impossible that, in the night, a coachman can see 
to the luggage on his coach, — nor indeed, can the guard, if he 
be asleep, and asleep he must be a great part of his time, if 
worked in the way above stated. He should not go more than 
one hundred miles, and he should be paid by the proprietors. 
But if the public should not be left to pay an armed guard, it 
is monstrous that they should pay an unarmed one. As to 
mail-guards, government allows them only a mere pittance of 
a few shillings a week, leaving the public to pay them; 
whereas the public have nothing to do with them, and it is the 
most impudent imposition that these servants of government 
should be paid by persons travelling. That they carry fire- 
arms is true ; but it is to protect the letter-bags — property 
which government is paid to protect — that they would use 
these arms, and not on account of passengers. Strictly speaking, 
they have nothing to do with the passengers, nor their lug- 
gage ; their sole duty being to protect the mail. As, therefore, 
government is paid for earning the mails, government, and 
not the public, should pay the persons who actually do protect 
them. 

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. 

Before getting upon the box, a coachman should walk round 
his horses' heads, to see that his curb-chains and coupling reins 
are right, and, above all, that the tongues of his billet-buckles 
are secure in their holes. Many accidents have arisen from 
the want of this precaution. No man is a safe coachman 
who does not see to these things. Of mounting and dismounting, 
there is nothing particular to be said; except that, in the former, 



THE SEAT — STARTING. 



199 



the reins are to be taken in the right hand, and transferred to 
the left as soon as the seat is reached. 

THE SEAT. 

The driver should sit in the middle of the box, quite straight 
towards his horses, rather upright or backward, than forward, 
with his knees nearly straight, and with his feet together, to- 
ward the edge of the footboard. With the exception of a pliant 
motion of his loins, on any jolting of the coach, his body 
should be quite at rest, and particularly so when he hits a 
horse. Independently of appearance, a firm seat on a box 
is very necessary for safety to a coachman and his passengers, 
for a trifle will otherwise displace him. 

STARTING. 

Before starting, four horses should stand clear, or at their 
proper length from each other. They should have some notice 
— a click, or a whistle given them to move. If the whip is 
used, the wheelers should be touched, as generally the ablest 
horses. 

It is with coach-horses as with mankind — that where the 
physical strength is in the governed, they must be humoured a 
little. When starting, the coachman must not pull at their 
heads, but feel their mouths lightly, or they may bolt, throw 
themselves down, or break through their harness. If they are 
old, and the stage commences with a descent, they should be 
allowed to go a couple of hundred yards before they are put to 
their usual pace. A young horse should be started very quietly, 
making the old horse take collar first. This is especially ne- 
cessary if the young one is inclined to be hot, as it will prevent 
his plunging. 

A young horse should first be started in a wide space, so that 
he may get off without a check. If he be alarmed, and inclined 
to bounce, he should not be held hard, and still less stopped ; 
for, if so, he may not like, particularly if high mettled, to start 
again. The old horse will prevent his running far. If a young 



200 



DRIVING. 



horse be shy of his collar, he should not at first be pressed to 
it; as he may thereby take a dislike to it, and become a jibber. 

A young horse, when first put to a coach, should be tinned to 
the pole very carefully, to prevent its touching his hind quarter, 
which might make him kick. When he has been driven long 
enough to be steady, he should be taken up in his bearing-rein, 
put down lower on his bit, and driven in a wide circle, or figure 
eight — keeping the inner horse well up to his collar and bit. 
In breaking, he should be frequently stopped, but not held 
after being pulled up, as, if high mettled, it will make him 
restless, and if dull, he does not require it. If, on the contrary, 
a young horse is heavy, and not ready to start when the com- 
mand is given, he should be whipped till he answer it. 

THE PACES. 

These, in (hiving, must always be a walk or a trot — never 
a canter, which, owing to the draught, would be equally in- 
jurious to the horse and to the carriage. Either of these 
paces, moreover, should be suited to the nature of the road. 
Rapid driving, on the stones especially, exposes a carriage to 
injury, both from shocks against others, and from those which 
attend its own motion. However, it is sometimes for a moment 
necessary, in order to get out of the way of carts, waggons, &c. 

In public coaches, the pace is often too rapid ; and, should 
any passenger plead for the horses, on the score of the excessive 
heat, the coachman with the utmost sang froid replies that he 
must keep his time, although the probability sometimes is, that 
one or more of them may drop, by which considerable time 
may be lost, as well as reduction in force ensue for the rest of 
the stage. Horses should be more frequently watered during 
hot weather than they generally are; increased perspiration 
renders it necessary. 

However well pleased thoughtless people may be at going at 
an accelerated rate, it is certainly hard that other passengers 
should be obliged to hazard their existence at the pleasure of a 
reckless driver, who, in answer to all remonstrance, coolly 
answers, he must " keep his time." Something should certainly 



THE TIME. 



201 



be done to prevent the cantering system* \ for no coach, be it 
ever so well built, can preserve its equilibrium so well when the 
horses are in the canter or gallop, as when in the trot. At the 
same time, it is to be borne in mind, that, at the rate our 
coaches now travel, some slight degree of it may sometimes be 
unavoidable, owing to horses trotting so variably, and its being 
very difficult to obtain teams every individual of which shall be 
able to trot through the distance at the required rate. 

In driving four-in-hand, it is not every man who knows when 
a coach-horse is at work, as a horse may keep a tight trace, and 
yet be doing little. There is, however, an increased tension of 
the horse's frame when taking weight with him, which is the 
surest test, and which never escapes a quick and experienced 
eye. As already observed, those called lobbing-goers take greater 
weight with them than horses of finer action, provided they are 
equally close workers. Heavy draught shortens the stride of 
horses, after they have been a few years at work. 

THE TIME. 

In short distances, to know precisely at what time it is neces- 
sary to start, to arrive at any place at a certain hour, the driver 
has only to ascertain the distance, and to regulate the pace by 
the following table : — 

4 miles an hour, 1 mile in 15 minutes. 



5 


ditto 


ditto 


12 


ditto 


6 


ditto 


ditto 


10 


ditto 


7 


ditto 


ditto 


8i 


ditto 


8 


ditto 


ditto 


7* 


ditto 


9 


ditto 


ditto 


6i 


ditto 


10 


ditto 


ditto 


6 


ditto 



In the streets of London, ten minutes at least, in every hour, 
must be allowed for stoppages. 

* There is an act which requires that all four shall not gallop together ; and 
many teams, especially in the neighbourhood of town, have one good trotter 
to defeat the informer, known as the "Act of Parliament horse."— Ed. Fifth 
Edition. 



202 



DRIVING. 



THE WHIP. 

" We are too apt/' said the late Lord Erskine, u to consider 
animals under the domination of man in no view but that of 
property. We should never forget that the animal over which 1 
we exercise our power has all the organs which render it suscep- 
tible of pleasure and pain. It sees, it hears, it smells, it tastes, 
it feels with acuteness. How mercifully, then, ought we to ex- 
ercise the dominion intrusted to our care ! " 

Speaking to coach-horses from the box is now considered 
slow, but it is not without its effect. Whipping, however, is 
sometimes indispensable. The manufacture of four-horse whips 
has arrived at great perfection, and affords employment to many 
hundred hands. 

Refined management of the whip is not of many years' birth ; 
and even now there are but few who execute this effectually and 
with grace. There are as many ways of whipping coach-horses, 
says a clever writer in the Sporting Magazine, as there are horses 1 
in the coach ; and, as there is a right and a wrong way of doing 
most things, a young beginner may observe the following direc- 
tions, beginning with the wheel-horses : — 

Before a coachman hits a wheel-horse, he should twist his 
thong three times round the crop of his whip, holding the croj: 
at that moment somewhat horizontally, by which means the ; 
thong will twist towards the thin end of the crop, when the 
thong, being doubled, will not exceed the length of a pan-horse 
thong, and in some measure resemble it. Being double renders 
it of course more severe, as it falls more heavily on the horse ; 
and by the two ends of the thong not being spread, but close ! 
together at the time of the blow, it falls with increased force. 

When the off-side wheeler is struck, the coachman's right arn 
should be put out from his body in the same position in whicl 
he presents it to his tailor to measure him for a coat, but tin 
blow should proceed entirely from the wrist. The part on whicl 
the horse should be struck is about four inches behind his fals< 1 I 
belly-band, or somewhere near the short rib on his right side 



THE WHIP. 



203 



The stinging part of the blow is then felt under the belly ; and, 
unless he is quite beaten, or of a sulky and bad disposition, he 
, seldom fails to answer it. If he do not answer it here, he must 
be struck before the belly-band, when the blow falls just behind 
the fore-arm, on a part on which the skin is very thin. In hitting 
a near-wheeler, the coachman brings his right hand exactly oppo- 
site to his face, and, turning the crop three times around, as 
before directed, he lets the thong fall sharply across the horse's 
loins three times in succession, if he do not answer sooner, — 
observing that, after the third blow, he draws the thong obliquely 
across the horse's back, by which means his arm returns to a 
state of rest, and the crop falls gently across his reins, just about 
his left hand, the crop pointing a little upwards to prevent the 
thong getting under or touching the near wheel-horse's tail. 
Should the latter be the case, if the driver lower his crop, the 
thong will almost always get released; but should it not, he must 
let the thong loose, and draw it out from the point. When it 
comes up from the tail, let the coachman throw back his crop a 
little to his right hand, and the point of the thong will fall across 
his ringers, when he catches it, and puts it back into his hand. 
It must be observed, that, in striking the near wheel horse, the 
wrist only, as in sword exercise, is at work : the body must be 
quite at rest ; and, after the whip is brought to bear, the arm 
must be quiet also, until the third blow is struck. 

There is only one other method of hitting a wheel-horse, which 
is called pointing him. This is done by hitting him with the 
point of the thong, when loose, just behind his shoulders, but it 
is not considered neat execution. If there should be a free leader 
before the bars it causes him to fret, and is only to be had re- 
course to in emergencies — as, for instance, in turning round a 
corner, or into a gateway, when a leader is to be hit, and before 
the coachman can recover his thong a wheel-horse requires 
whipping also. 

If a wheel-horse show symptoms of vice, as a disposition to 
kick, &c, or, in short, if he refuse to answer either of the other 
calls upon his exertions, a blow with the double thong on his 



204 



DRIVING. 



ears generally brings him to his senses. "Without great neces- 
sity, however, it is very reprehensible to strike a coach-horse 
over the ears, the parts being very sensible. 

It is generally supposed it is in whipping a leader that neat- 
ness of execution is more especially displayed. It is, however, 
quite a mistake to suppose that it is in the power of a coachman 
to punish a leader with the single, as he can a wheel-horse with 
the double thong. No doubt, however, the blow from the loose 
thong falls very sharp, as it falls on a tender part — the inside of 
the thigh. 

As the off-leader presents himself more fully to the right hand 
of the coachman than his partner does, the horse that is the less 
free of the two is generally put on that side. There are but two 
ways of hitting an off-leader: one, by letting the thong fall gently 
over his neck, or just behind his pad, when his driver merely 
wishes to refresh his memory, and let him know that he has a 
whip in his hand ; and the other, when he wants to hit him i 
sharply, by striking him with the point of the thong just under 
his bar. The hard hitters of the old school never conceived they 
had done the latter effectually, unless they struck their horse 
twice at least, if not three times, the last stroke always ending 
in a draw. 

As this word " draw" is peculiar to the road, it must be ex- 
plained to such as may not exactly comprehend it. Suppose a 
coachman to hit his off-leader three times. The first two blows 
are given, as it were, under-handed — that is to say, the hand is 
lowered so as to admit of the thong going under the bar the first 
two strokes. When the third or last is given, the point of the 
elbow is thrown outwards, so as to incline the thong inwards, i 
which brings it up to the coachman's hand after the stroke, it 
generally falling across his breast, which would not be the case 
were it not for the draw. Another advantage also attends the 
draw : a thong so thrown very seldom hangs in the bars, and I 
nothing is more uncoachman-like than to hit a leader above his 
bar. A horse's mouth should always be felt before his coachman 
hits him. 



THE WHIP. 



205 



Hitting the near leader with neatness and effect is the most 
difficult part of the use of the whip. There are two ways of 
doing it : one, by two common strokes and the draw ; and the 
other by a sort of back-handed stroke, which is a very neat one, 
and sufficiently severe, but it does not bring the thong so imme- 
diately up to the coachman's hand as the drawn stroke does. In 
the back-handed stroke, the wrist describes an exact figure of 
eight, and the arm cannot be kept, as before, quite still. In the 
other method of hitting, the coachman's arm is brought about 
opposite his chin, the first two blows proceeding from the wrist 
alone ; but in the third, or the draw, the hand descends, the 
elbow is thrown outwards, and by two jerks of the arm, which it 
is difficult to describe on paper, the draw is effected, and the 
thong comes, as before stated, across the coachman's breast, so 
as to enable him to catch it instantly. 

There is one other way of hitting a leader ; and that is, by 
what is called the chop. This is done by throwing out the right 
arm rather forward, and with it, of course, the thong, and then 
bringing it back sharply with the wrist inclined downwards. The 
thong falls severely on the horse's thigh, and comes up to the 
hand again, as in the draw. This is a very useful blow in a 
narrow confined place, or when it is necessary to lose no time 
before a leader is hit ; and, when neatly done, has a very work- 
man-like appearance. This blow generally falls above the bar, 
particularly if a horse is not at work at the time. 

It has been said that leaders should always be hit under their 
bar. This, however, cannot always be done; for if a horse hang 
back from his collar, his bar is so low that it may be difficult to 
get under it. In this case, however, the blow is made to tell 
smartly, as it is in the coachman's power to throw his whip into 
the flank, which is a very sensible part. When a leader is well 
up to his collar, he always can, and always should, be hit under 
his bar. 

Should the point of the thong catch, or, as they say on the 
road, " get hanged," in the bars or the pole-pieces — neither of 



206 DRIVING. 

which it will do when properly drawn after the last stroke, as 
the inclination of the hand in the act of drawing enables it to 
clear them— no violence should be used to loosen it, or a broken 
crop will be the consequence. On the contrary, the arm should 
be thrown forward, and the thong lightly moved, when in a 
minute or two it will shake out. If it be fast between the eye 
of the main bar and the pole-hook, the leaders should be eased r 
a little, and it will get released. Sometimes, however, on a wet 
day, a thong will lap round some of these things so fast as to 
make it necessary for the guard or some person to get down to 
untie it. This is technically called having a bite. The double 
thong will also sometimes hitch in the ends of the wheelers' 
traces, as also in the point of the false belly-band. To obviate 
this, in gentlemen's harness, these parts are always covered, or 
piped, as it is called. 

A free leader should not be hit in a short turn, or he may 
break his bar, perhaps the pole-hook, or even the main-bar. 
Neither should leaders be hit in going over a small bridge which 
is much raised, or when the pole points upwards, as their draught 
on the end of it may snap it in the futchels. Some drivers per- 
petually whip or fan their horses, which first irritates and after- 
wards injures them, by rendering them insensible to the proper 
aids or correction. It must be observed that the whip should 
never be used but in case of necessity. Indeed, one of the best 
proofs of a good coachman is to see his right arm still; and 
although, for the safety of his coach, he ought to be able to 
punish a horse when he requires punishment, yet he should, on 
all accounts, be as sparing of it as he can. Horses may be 
whipped till they become callous to whipping, and therefore 
slow. In the condition in which coach-horses are now kept, a 
pound of Nottingham whipcord will last a good coachman his 
lifetime. The very act of throwing the point of the thong over 
the leaders' heads, or letting it fall on their backs, as a fisher- 
man throws his fly upon the stream, will set half the coach-horses 
in England, in these days, into a gallop. 



DRIVING. 



207 



THOROUGHFARES, PASSING, &C. 

The driver should avoid passing through the great thorough- 
fares, and prefer the widest of the less frequented streets which 
run parallel to them. In London, he should never go into the 
City through the Strand, Fleet-street, and Cheapside, between 
twelve and five o'clock, if he can possibly avoid it, as these 
streets are then crowded with every kind of vehicle. He should 
also avoid going into the City about mid-day, on Mondays and 
Fridays, on account of the droves of oxen passing through the 
principal streets. 

The middle of the road is safest, especially for a loaded coach, 
except under peculiar circumstances. 

. In driving four horses, to keep them well in hand is a most 
material point, both as regards their work and for the safety of 
the coach. The track made by a coach in descending a hill 
shows whether the horses are properly held together or not. 
Accidents from horses taking fright, and bolting across the road, 
happen only to clumsy fellows, of whom the list is considerable. 
The rules for passing and meeting carriages on the road have 
already been given, yet there are times when they need not be 
| strictly adhered to, and a little accommodation becomes expe- 
dient. Thus, if one coachman has the hill in his favour— that is, 
if he be going down, and a loaded coach be coming up at the 
ifSame time— he who is descending, if he can do it with safety, 
jught to give the hardest side of the road to the other coach- 
nan. 

I 

U ^ As to narrow spaces, it is evident that where the bars can go 
njhe coach can go, as they are wider than the wheels; and conse- 
quently, if they are cleared, all is safe. The swing-bar is an 
excellent invention, as a horse works in it from either shoulder, 
lad therefore quite at his ease. A sharp and experienced driver 
Jjnay calculate exactly the space sufficient to pass between two 
.3odies at rest, and may therefore pass with confidence and at 
?ase. As, however, in streets, he must meet many carriages 
Iriven by inexperienced or intoxicated fellows, who do not for a 



208 



DRIVING. 



moment move in an)' direct line, he should allow them ample 
room, and proceed with the utmost caution. A driver must be 
incessantly on the look-out, must watch every vehicle that ap- 
proaches, and give it more room than it may seem to require. 

ASCENDING AND DESCENDING. 

In going up hill, it is in general best to trot up at first, and 
to walk afterwards. In going down hill, it is best to keep the 
wheelers tight in hand, to let the leaders just clear the bars, and 
to come gently down. In the latter case, a turn of the reins of 
the wheel-horses may be made round the little finger. (Plate 
LXII. fig. 4.) 

Although, however, it may be necessary to catch up wheel- 
horses, and make them hold back their coach down hill, there is 
nothing in which a light finger is more essential to safety. The 
manner in which some persons haul at horses' mouths, when 
descending with a load, considerably adds to the difficulty, by 
trying the strength of the tackle. But this is not all : these 
persons should be aware that all this force employed on their 
horses' mouths is so much added to the pressure of the coach ; 
in proportion to it is that pressure increased. The horses are 
then drawing by their heads ! 

The objections to a locked wheel, with a top-heavy load, have 
already been stated. If, however, with a heavy load, and upon 
a smooth hard road, a wheel must be locked, it should be that 
next a ditch, or other dangerous part. In going down hill, a 
coach always strikes on the side on which the wheel is not locked. 
The coachman should therefore keep as much as possible on that 
side of the road on which the wheel is locked : by crossing the 
road, if he meet or have to pass any thing, the coach will not 
strike; and by holding that way, at any time, it will prevent over- 
turning. The coach naturally strikes in a direct line from the 
perch-bolt. 

The generality of passengers know not the danger of galloping 
a coach, with three tons' weight in and out, down hill, at the 
rate of twelve or fifteen miles an hour, with no wheel locked, 



ASCENDING AND DESCENDING. 



209 



the whole resistance of the wheel-horses depending on a small 
leather strap and buckle at the top of the hames, — these coach- 
men deeming it beneath their dignity to drive with breechings. 
Even thus, however, accidents would be much less frequent if 
coachmen took the precaution of pulling up their horses short, 
when on the point of descending. In night-work, this is doubly 
useful, because it often happens that a pole-chain is unhooked, 
or a hame-strap gets loose, without being discernible by lamp or 
moonlight. 

u With wheel-horses that will hold back at all, I will be 
bound," says a clever writer and experienced coachman, " to 
take a loaded coach down most of the hills now met with on 
our great roads, without a drag- chain, provided I am allowed to 
pull up my horses at the top, and let them take it quietly the 
first hundred yards. This, it may be said, would be losing time, 
but, on the contrary, time would be gained by it ; for, as soon 
as I perceived I was master of my coach, I should let her go, 
and by letting my horses loose at the bottom, I could spring 
them into a gallop, and cheat them out of half the hill, if there 
were one (as frequently happens) on the next portion of road. 
This advantage, it must be recollected, cannot be taken if the 
chain be to be put on ; and I have therefore in my favour all the 
time required to put the chain on, and to take it off again." 

There are, however, some horses which no man can make to 
hold a loaded coach down hill. Of this description are, first, 
the stiff-necked one, as he is called, who turns his head away 
from his partner, and shoulders the pole ; and, secondly, one 
who, when he feels the weight pressing upon him, begins to 
canter and jump, as coachmen term it; with these holding 
back properly is out of the question. With such cattle, the 
drag-chain must be had recourse to ; as well as when there is 
the least reason to suspect the soundness of the harness, All 
this confirms the necessity of checking the force of a coach 
before descending a steep hill, and indeed in some cases — as 
with bad holders — before coming upon a slight descent. The 
term which coachmen have for this species of road, is " pushing 



210 



DRIVING. 



ground ;** and if the fall be long, it is astonishing how the 
pressure of a loaded coach upon wheel horses is increased be- 
fore getting to the bottom of it, and how difficult it would be, 
with wheelers not of the very best stamp, to pull up short, if 
any accident should happen. 

Young coachmen, in descending a hill, should take care that 
then leaders do not draw on the end of the pole, which many 
free ones do when they find the coach coming quickly after 
them ; for this not only increases the pressure of the coach on 
the wheelers, but, should either of them stumble, it must assist 
in bringing him down. The following good and characteristic 
directions were given by a very experienced coachman, to a 
gentleman who undertook to take his coach a journey for him, 
but who, although he knew the road well, had never driven on it 
before. (i That middle twelve miles of ground," said he, "is a 
punisher, and you must mind what you are at with this load. 
You have two hills to go down, and three to go up, in the first 
seven miles. Don't stop to put the chain on, as they'll hold 
well, and the tackle is good ; and don't let them walk up the 
hills, for they are bad hands at that — you will lose a horse's 
draught by it, and perhaps get hung up on one of them. You 
must take fifty minutes to do the first seven miles, and good 
work too. When you get at the top of the last hill, get down 
and put your near leader to the cheek, and they'll toddle you 
over the last five miles in half an hour, with all the pleasure 
alive." 

The following observations on this subject from the number 
of the Quarterly Review already quoted, are too interesting to 
be omitted here. 

" Many years have elapsed," he says, " since I first observed 
that, somehow or other, the horses on the continent manage to 
pall a heavy carriage up a steep hill, or even along a dead level, 
with greater ease to themselves than our English horses. If any 
unprejudiced person would only attentively remark with what 
little apparent fatigue three small ill-conditioned horses will 
draw, not only his own carriage, but very often that huge over- 



ASCENDING AND DESCENDING. 



211 



grown vehicle the French diligence, or the German eilwagen, I 
think he would agree with me ; but the whole equipment is so 
unsightly — the rope harness is so rude — the horses without 
blinkers look so wild — there is so much bluster with the postilion 
— that, far from paying any compliment to the turn-out, one is 
very much disposed at once to condemn the whole thing, and, 
not caring a straw whether such horses be fatigued or not, to 
make no other remark than that in England one would have 
travelled at nearly twice the rate with one-tenth of the noise. 
But neither the rate nor the noise is the point — our superiority 
in the former, and our inferiority in the latter, cannot be doubted. 
The thing to account for is, how such small, weak horses do 
actually manage to draw a heavy carriage up hill with so much 
ease to themselves. Now, in English, French, and German 
harness, there exists, as it were, three degrees of comparison as 
to the manner in which the head of the horse is treated ; for, in 
England, it is elevated, or borne up, by what we call the bearing- 
rein, — in France it is left as Nature placed it (there being to 
common French harness no bearing-rein), — and, in Germany, 
the head is tied down to the lower extremity of the collar, or else 
the collar is so made that the animal is by it deprived of the 
power of raising his head. Now, passing over for a moment the 
French method, which is, in fact, the state of nature, let us for 
a moment consider which is better — to bear a horse's head up, 
as in England, or to pull it downwards, as in Germany." 

Evidently fired with a favourite theme, he thus proceeds : — 
" In a state of nature, the wild horse, as every body knows (?), 
has two distinct gaits or attitudes. If man, or any still wilder 
beast, come suddenly upon him, up goes his head ; and as he 
first stalks and then trots gently away — with ears erect, snorting 
with his nose, and proudly snuffing up the air, as if exulting in 
his freedom — as one fore-leg darts before the other, we have 
before us a picture of doubt, astonishment, and hesitation, all of 
which feelings seem to rein him, like a troop-horse, on his 
haunches ; but, attempt to pursue him, and the moment he 
defies you — the moment, determining to escape, he shakes his 



212 



DRIVING. 



head, and lays himself to his work — how completely does he 
alter his attitude ! That instant down goes his head, and from 
his ears to the tip of his tail there is in his vertebrae an undulat- 
ing action which seems to propel him, which works him along, 
and which, it is evident, you could not deprive him of without 
materially diminishing his speed. Now, in harness, the horse 
has naturally the same two gaits or attitudes, and it is quite 
true that he can start away with a carriage either in the one or 
the other ; but the means by which he succeeds in this effort — 
the physical powers which he calls into action, are essentially 
different : — in the one case he works by his muscles, and in 
the other by his own dead, or rather living, weight. In order to 
grind corn, if any man were to erect a steam-engine over a fine, 
strong, running stream, we should all say to him, ( Why do you 
not allow your wheel to be turned by cold water instead of hot ? 
Why do you not avail yourself of the weight of the water, in- 
stead of expending your capital in converting it into the power 
of steam? In short, why do you not use the simple resource 
which Nature has presented ready-made to your hand?' In 
the same way, the German might say to us, 6 We acknowledge 
a horse can drag a carriage by the power of his muscles, but 
why do you not allow him to drag it by his weight ? 5 

" Let any one observe a pair of English post-horses dragging 
a heavy weight up a hill, and he will at once see that the poor 
creatures are working by their muscles, and that it is by sheer 
strength that the resistance is overcome : but how can it be 
otherwise ; their heads are higher than nature intended them to 
be, even in walking in a state of liberty, carrying no weight but 
themselves : the balance of their bodies is therefore absolutely 
turned against, instead of leaning in favour of their draught ; 
and if my reader will but pass his hands down the back sinews of 
our stage-coach or post-chaise horses, he will soon feel (though 
not so keenly as they do), what is the cruel and fatal conse- 
quence. It is true, that in ascending a very steep hill an 
English postilion will occasionally unhook his bearing-reins ; 
but the jaded creatures, trained for years to work in a false 



THE TURNINGS. 



213 



attitude, cannot in one moment get themselves into the scientific 
position which the German horses are habitually encouraged to 
adopt. Besides this, we are so sharp with our horses, — we keep 
them so constantly on the qui vive, or, as we term it, in hand, 
that we are always driving them from the use of their weight to 
the application of their sinews. That the figure and attitude of 
a horse working by his sinews are infinitely prouder than when 
he is working by his weight, (there may exist, however, false 
pride among horses as well as men), I most readily admit ; and 
therefore, for carriages of luxury, where the weight bears little 
proportion to the powers of the noble animals employed, I ac- 
knowledge that the sinews are more than sufficient ; but, to 
bear up the head of a poor horse at plough, or at any slow, 
heavy work, is, I conceive, a barbarous error, which ought not 
to be persisted in. 

" Whether there is most of the horse in a German, or of the 
German in a horse, is a nice point, on which people might argue 
a great deal : but the broad fact really is, that Germans live on 
more amicable terms with their horses, and understand their 
dispositions infinitely better, than the English ; in short, they 
treat them as horses, while we act towards them and drill them 
as if they were men ; and, in case any reader should doubt that 
Germans are better horse-masters than we are, I beg to remind 
him of what is perfectly well known to the British army, — 
namely, that in the Peninsular war the cavalry horses of the 
German Legion were absolutely fat, while those of our regiments 
were skin and bone, 55 

THE TURNINGS. 

: These must be regulated by the ground. A good driver 
avoids all quick and sharp turnings. In town, it is much better 
to drive on a little further, where another street may allow the 
ample room requisite in turning. If a carriage do not pass 
quite across a channel without turning, the perch must be 
twisted according to the descent, because one wheel falls as that 
at the opposite angle rises. By such a wrench, especially when 



214 



DRIVING. 



going fast, the main or perch bolt is frequently broken, and 
every part strained. 

A loaded coach should never be turned short, even at a slow 
pace, for the coach is never safe when there is not an even 
bearing on the transom beds. If turned short, at a quick pace, 
the higher and looser part of a coach must go over, because all 
bodies put in motion by one power will proceed in a straight 
line, unless compelled to change their course by some force 
impressed. Hence a horse at full speed is with difficulty turned 
to right or left ; and, if he turn suddenly, and of his own accord, 
he puts his rider's horsemanship to the test. So with a coach, 
a sudden turn to one side the road allows the body to swag 
towards the other, and the centre of gravity is lost. 

In a turn, a coachman must point his leaders well, that is, 
take proper ground for them to make the turn, and let his 
wheelers follow them. Moreover, as wheel-horses are always 
in haste to make the turn, the driver must shoot them out on 
the opposite side, just as he has pointed his leaders. Thus, if 
the turn be to the right, he must catch up his near wheel rein, 
and hit his off wheel-horse ; and vice versa. This will keep the 
head of the pole (which he should have his eye upon) just be- 
tween the leaders, and the wheelers will follow, as if they were 
running on a straight road. This will also secure him against 
danger, by clearing his coach of posts, gutters, &c. No man 
can make a neat turn with four horses, unless he shoot his 
wheelers, at the same time that he points his leaders. In turn- 
ing, the wheelers must rather be kept up, and the leaders be 
tight in hand, to avoid the corner ; for, if the wheelers flag, and 
the leaders draw, the carriage must be brought against it. ( 

f 

THE RANKS IN TOWN. 

These must never be broken, either in driving through crowded 
streets, or in setting down at crowded places. As to admitting 
others into the rank, every driver should do as he would be 
done by. 



STOPS. 



215 



STOPS. 

It is a good plan to use horses to stop by notice, as it may 
prevent accidents. In pulling up, the driver must pull the reins 
equally, but rather those of the wheelers first. If this is attended 
with difficulty, take the wheelers' reins in the right hand, and 
pull till they hang well on the breeching, or on the pole chains, 
thus increasing the leaders' draught so much that they will 
easily be pulled up. 

When a young coach-horse is stopped, it should be very 
gradually — allowing at least ten yards to do it in ; for, if it be 
attempted to stop him short, he will resist. A careful driver will 
never keep his carriage standing in a great thoroughfare : but 
when obliged to stop in a crowded street, the driver should, if 
possible, avoid the spot where another carriage is stopping; 
should choose as much as possible the widest part of the street ; 
and draw up close to the curb. 

There is no part of stage-coach economy in which greater 
alteration has been made than in changing horses. Unless 
business is to be transacted — as taking fares for passengers, 
setting down, getting out parcels, &c, — the average with fast 
coaches is three minutes for each change. 

ACCIDENTS, &C. TO HORSES. 

A cantering leader, or one that frets, is generally mismanaged 
by young coachmen. They are apt to pull him back, and en- 
deavour to get him to trot, by the bit, which generally fails, or 
makes him even worse, by bringing him back on his bar. The 
right way is to pull him back by his harness ; that is, to keep 
the wheelers back, so that he may feel his collar and bit at the 
same time. 

A horse that kicks ought to be taken very short in his pole- 
piece, and gagged ; and, when he begins to kick, he should be 
whipped on the ears — a punishment which should never be 
inflicted but for vice. — Hallooing to a horse when he kicks, has 
sometimes an effect. A hot leader is sometimes benefited 



216 DRIVING. 

by mopping. An experienced driver says, " I once bought a j 
capital coach-horse for twenty-six pounds, because no one could 
drive him : and, as he had broken two carriages, he was the 
terror of the neighbourhood. I mopped him, and could drive ; 
him with the greatest safety, either leader or at wheel." 

In the case of a horse falling, a periodical writer, replying 
to another, states, " In one of his letters on ' the Road/* he 
says, ( If the coachman be driving with the short wheel rein, 
and a horse fall beyond recovery, he had better open his hand, 
and let the reins fall out, than run the risk of being pulled off 
the box.' With all due deference to such authority, I cannot 
subscribe to this, as it frequently happens that a horse falls, is 
dragged along the ground for a short distance, and recovers 
himself the moment the coach stops, and then starts off at full 
gallop, the other horses following his example. Now, if coachee 
has opened his fist, and let the reins tumble out, and the 
above occurrence should take place, I would certainly rather 
be on the top of Cheviot than on the top of the said coach, 
as the catastrophe would not be very difficult to foretell/' 

On many horses, hot weather has a singular effect; and, 
therefore, it often happens that a good winter horse is an 
indifferent summer one. Coach-horses are subject to many 
accidents, of which one is peculiar to them — namely, fracture 
of the legs in trotting on level ground,* Fractures of the 
foot in draught-horses and others are common ; but fractures 
of the leg in coach-horses when trotting over level ground, 
are probably caused by over-tension of the limb in the act 
of drawing. It is said that a coach-horse's leg is more fre- 

i 

* When driving one of the Birmingham fast coaches, just entering the 
town of Dunstable, my near leader fell with her off hind-leg snapped clean in 
two, held together merely by the skin. On pulling up to clear her from the , 
coach, I found the cause of the accident ; a piece of flint, shaped like a 
hatchet, and with a blade as keen as a razor, still adhering to the bone, 
against which it had either been whirled by a kick from one of the other three, 
or had flown upwards from the tread of the mare herself.— Ed. Fifth 
Edition. 



ACCIDENTS TO COACHES, ETC. 



217 



quently broken, when, with a heavy load behind him, he 
snatches at his collar in a turn of the road. 

They are also subject to an affection known by the appellation 
of the lick, which greatly injures their condition. In this state 
they lick each other's skins, and gnaw their halters to pieces. 
This probably proceeds from the state of the stomach, caused 
by the excitement of high feeding and work. It may be re- 
moved by opening or alterative medicines. 

They are likewise subject to a kind of vertigo, which on 
the road is called megrims. This, of which the immediate 
cause is temporary pressure on the brain, is often brought 
on by running in the face of a hot sun ; and, therefore, horses 
subject to megrims ought to work at night. The attack ap- 
pears to come on suddenly, though a snatching motion of the 
head is sometimes observed to precede it. If not immediately 
pulled up, the horse thus affected drops. Such horses should 
have attention paid to the state of their bowels, and have fre- 
quent antimonial alteratives. What is called " a megrim horse" 
is always dangerous, especially near a precipice or ditch, as, 
when seized, he rolls away from his partner, and, of course, 
takes him with him. 

ACCIDENTS TO COACHES, &C. 

A necessary precaution in a gig is — never to sit with the feet 
under the body, but always to have one, if not both, out before 
it. " I had a passenger by the side of me," says the driver who 
gives this caution, " who w r as sitting with his feet under his 
belly, and who was consequently thrown with much violence 
into the road. I had five miles further to drive him, during 
which he took care to have his feet before him." 

In stage-coaches, accidents no doubt occur, and no one will 
assert that the proprietors guard against them to the utmost of 
their power. The great competition, however, which they have 
to encounter, is a strong stimulant to their exertions on this 
score. In some respects, also, the increase of pace has become 
the traveller's security : coaches and harness must be of the 



218 



DRIVING. 



best quality \ horses fresh and sound ; coachmen of skill and 
respectability can alone be employed; and to this increased 
pace is owing the improvement in these men's character. 
They have not time now for drinking, and they come in colli- 
sion with a class of persons superior to those who formerly i 
were stage-coach passengers, by whose example it has been 
impossible for them not to profit. A coachman drunk on his 
box is now a rarity — a coachman quite sober was, but a few 
years ago, still more so. On the whole, however, travelling by 
public conveyance was never so secure as it is at the present 
time. Axle-trees and springs do not often break now ; and if 
proprietors go to the expense, their wheels are made secure 
against coming off. 

The worst accidents, and those which, with the present struc- 
ture of coaches, can never be entirely provided against, arise 
from broken axle-trees, and wheels coming off on the road. The i 
guard, therefore, in whose department this lies, ought to examine 
the axle-tree every time it is fresh greased. He should also re- 
move it once in ten days, put a string through the bolt that 
receives the linch-pin, and hang it up and cleanse it ; and he 
should then strike it with a hammer, when, if uncracked and 
sound, it will ring like a bell — the coachman attending to take 
care that it be again properly screwed on. 

Reins also break, though rarely, except in those parts which 
run through the terrets, the rings of the throat-lash, or in the 
billets ; and attention to these would make all safe, as far as 
accidents from this cause are concerned. 

Accidents happen also from want of attention to the security 
of the bridles. The throat-lash, therefore — particularly of the f 
wheelers — should be as tight as can be allowed without injuring 
respiration. There otherwise is always danger of the bridle being 
pulled off. Accidents, moreover, happen from galloping coach- ! 
horses down hill, or on even ground. If, indeed, a casualty then 
happen, it must be a bad one. The goodness of a road is no - 
preservative against it : on the contrary, it is possible that if a 
coach begin to swing, it may go over from the very circumstance 



ACCIDENTS TO COACHES, ETC. 



219 



of the road being so level and so smooth that there is nothing 
on its surface to hold the wheels to the ground. If, moreover, 
there be two horses at wheel whose stride in their gallop differs 
much as to extent, the unequal draught invariably sets the coach 
rolling, and, unless the pace moderate, the fore-wheel passing 
over even a small stone, may, under such circumstances, cause 
the coach to upset. In respect to lateral motion, however, much 
depends upon the build of the carriage. In galloping coach- 
horses, if the leaders lead off with two legs, the motion of the 
coach is considerably truer, and the swing-bars are also much 
more at rest, than when each horse uses the same leg. 

It appears, then, that accidents to coaches are chiefly to be 
attributed either to the want of proper skill and care in the 
servants employed, or to what is still less pardonable, inatten- 
tion on the part of their masters. Road- coachmen, fortunately, 
are well aware that the law looks sharply after them ; and that 
for neglect proved against them, they are equally answerable to 
their employers, as these are to the public. 

" If I were to go upon the road," says an amateur, " I would 
be a night coachman through a well-inhabited country. For six 
months of the year, it is undoubtedly the pleasanter service ; 
and I never found any difference between taking rest by day or 
by night." It is, however, calculated only for a man in the prime 
of his days, as all his energies are required. The night coach- 
man ought to know his line of road well. He must take rest 
regularly, or he will be sure to become drowsy, if he do not go 
to sleep. He must also keep himself sober ; keep a tight hand 
on his horses ; keep the middle of the road ; and be sure to 
keep time. 

The night coachman must cast his eye well forward, and get 
out of the way of carts and waggons in time. Although, by 
looking perpendicularly from his box or at the hedges, if there 
be any, he may always see if he be in the road, yet if he cannot 
throw his eye some way before his leaders' heads, he is going at 
random. He will often get close to things he may meet in the 
road before he is aware of them; and therefore, as I have already 



220 



DRIVING. 



said, it is essential that he should be wide awake, and have his 
horses well in hand. 

Chains and springs on the bars are good things for night- 
work, as they prevent the leaders' traces coming off. A narrow 
road, sufficiently wide, of course, for carriages to pass with con- 
venience — with no ditch on the side — is much the best for night- 
work. Unless when the moon is very bright, a dark night is in 
favour of safe travelling. When it is what coachmen term 
" a clear dark," the lamps give much better light than when 
the darkness approaches to grey. In very wide roads, particu- 
larly where there are no hedges to confine them, lamplight is 
both weak and deceiving ; and moonlight is often glimmering 
and doubtful, particularly when clouds are passing rapidly. 
Lamplight is treacherous, both in fogs and when horses are 
going at a moderate pace, with the wind just behind them ; for 
then the steam arising from their bodies follows them, and ne- 
cessarily obstructs the light. Sometimes, from driven rain or 
snow, a coachman can scarcely open his eyes so as to see the 
road to the extent of the light given by the lamps, in which case 
a tight hand on the horses is especially necessary. 

A heavy fog is the only thing which baffles the skill and in- 
trepidity of our night coachmen. In this case, lamps are of no 
avail as to showing light forward ; and, in the worst cases, the 
only use that can be made of them is for the guard to hold one 
in his hand behind the coach, by which he will be able to see 
whether the horses are in the road or not. Lamps, however, are 
always useful in case of accidents ; and, except in very clear 
moonlight, a night coach should never travel without them. 

Accidents often occur from coachmen neglecting to light their 
lamps in going into a town. It often happens that, when a coach 
comes down the road in the morning, there may be no obstruc- 
tion in the streets ; but rubbish from buildings, stones, or many 
other things, may be thrown out by the time it comes up again 
at night. When an accident happens to a coach, presence of 
mind is much required. Outside passengers should never think 
of quitting by jumping, from the fore part, at least, until she 



OBSTRUCTIONS OFFENCES, ETC. 



221 



falls to the ground. From the box, indeed, a man may get over 
the roof into the guard's seat, and thence descend. 

Among the various contrivances for dragging wheels, we ma) r 
mention a very ingenious one by Mr. Eapson. The drag is 
applied to the nave of the wheel, with a chain attached, which 
is fastened to the breeching, a small pin on each side going into 
the bar of the drag. If one of these pins be taken out, the 
wheel will be dragged, and if both are withdrawn, the wheels 
are both acted upon during the descent, by the breech bearing 
against the horse. 




In the first of these diagrams we have a representation of the 
break attached to the wheel, but inoperative, the jointed circle 
separating the chain, c, and bolt, b, from the nave. In the 
second figure, the entire frame a, b, c, is seen in direct colli- 
sion with the nave, and by its friction retarding the locked 
wheel. This, however, does not occur till the breeching of the 
harness is drawn tight, by the pressure of the carriage upon it. 

OBSTRUCTIONS, OFFENCES, AND INJURIES. 

By the 1st Geo. I. c. 57* drivers of hackney coaches are to 
give way to gentlemen's carriages, under a penalty of 10s. 

If a carriage be obstructed by disorderly persons, the driver 
should take out his pocket-book, and let the persons guilty of 
this see that he is taking a note of their number ; and he should 
then coolly tell them that he will summon them if they do not 
immediately clear the way. 



222 



DRIVING. 



If a carriage be injured by another running against it, the 
driver should ascertain whose carriage has done the mischief, 
and let his coachmaker give an estimate of the charge for re- 
pairing it; but, before he has it done, he should let the person 
who injured it see the mischief, and pay the charge; or, as is the 
custom, let the repair be made by the coachmaker of the party 
who committed the injury. 




THE TURF. 

It is singular that no portion of our domestic annals should 
be sd obscure as that which relates to the early history of our 
first of National Sports. In the remotest ages of civilization (so 
far at least as any existing records carry us back), a taste for 
horae-racing was fostered and promoted as a social engine 
peculiarly adapted to rural and political purposes. The Greeks 
— the wisest and most polished people that the world has ever 
seen — carried their estimate of its importance so far, that their 
chiefs not only took part in the sports of the hippodrome, but 
acted as officials in the regulation of its details. Philip of 
Macedon thought it not unbecoming the imperial crown, that 
he who wore it should discharge the office of judge at the 
Pythian Games, and his son repaid in gold every line written 



224 



THE TURF. 



by Pindar in honour of the chaplet of wild olive.* The verse 
of Pindar, and the prose of Pausanias, have immortalized the 
names of Olympia and Elis. The latter has left us the minutest 
particulars of the economy of racing in his day. He describes 
the Olympian Hippodrome at Elis, and all its gorgeous display 
of splendid embellishments and ingenious machinery, with a 
care and prodigality of narrative that give assurance of the 
importance which attached to the matter delineated. Of the 
perfection to which, in that era, the science of the course had 
attained, we need no better proof than the classification ob- 
served in the Olympic Games — where horses were matched 
according to their ages, and prizes instituted for races between 
mares only (called Calpe). It is needless, however, to encumber 
our subject with ancient lore, by continuing these classic refer- 
ences. Enough has, perhaps, been already adduced to establish 
this point — that we possess more knowledge of the condition of 
racing three thousand years ago, than we do of the state it was 
in three hundred years since in our native land. 

But because we are in possession of such scanty materials, it 
by no means follows that the little we do know should be with- 
held. The reader will therefore have the courtesy to look back 
with me to the tenth century, and I promise to bring him again 
into the nineteenth with all convenient speed. As far back, 
then, as the reign of Athelstan (925), we read that a present of 
" running horses' 5 was sent to that monarch from France, the 
gift of Hugh Capet. As nothing however is known of the 
character of those animals, we will pass on to the reign of 
William, whicli affords better data. At that period a nobleman 
(the Earl of Shrewsbury) appears to have imported several 
Spanish horses for his own use. Now, as the Moors had had 
a footing in Spain for several centuries prior to the Norman 
conquest, there is little doubt that the blood of the Barb was, in 
the eleventh century, extensively diffused through that country, 
and that a highly improved breed of the horse was at the time 
extant there. Here we have a reasonable era from whicli to 

* The crown given to the victors in the Olympic games. 



THE TURF. 



225 



date an amelioration of the indigenous race in our island. A 
little more than a century later, in the reign of Henry the Second 
(1154), we come to, as far as I have been able to discover, the 
earliest mention of racing to be found in our national records. 
This refers to a barbarous sort of running practised upon the 
plain now occupied by Smithfield, which does not appear to 
have been subjected to any regulations of time or method. 
Smithfield, indeed, was then the great horse-mart, and very 
probably the contests, exalted by their chronicler (Fitzstephen 
the monk), to Olympic honours, were nothing more than ex- 
hibitions, by rival horse-croupers, of the mettle, speed, and 
action of their respective " palfreys, hackneys, and charging- 
steeds." 

Still, that horse-racing was about this time a popular pastime, 
and one in which the nobles of the land were wont to take 
pride, is fully established by the allusions to it that abound in 
the many metrical legends, yet in existence, composed in honour 
of Richard of the Lion Heart. These preserve the names of 
the coursers, and speak of them as being valued at sums that, 
allowing for the difference in the worth of money, quite exceed 
any prices known in our day. The domestic troubles which 
marked the reign of John, and the succession of wars in which 
we were subsequently engaged, probably interrupted the pro- 
gress of this sport materially — at all events, we do not find any 
of our sovereigns giving their countenance to it from Richard 
to the bluff Harry. Henry VIII. was constitutionally disposed 
■ for manly occupations and amusements — of his moral tendencies 
we speak not. We have it on the authority of Challoner that 
he was much disposed to improve the breed of horses, for 
which purpose he imported various descriptions from Spain and 
Turkev. Fortune, too, enabled his daughter Elizabeth to do 
much for our native breed ; the destruction of the Spanish 
Armada having supplied us with many barbs and Spanish-bred 
horses, their descendants, found in the vessels of that fleet which 
fell into the hands of Lord Howard of Effingham. 

a 



I 



226 



THE TURF. 



We now come to her successor, James L,* who must be 
considered as the founder of legitimate racing in this country. 
He introduced the first Arab into England of which we have 
any knowledge — that purchased by Mr. Markham, and known 
as the Markham Arabian. The training system, which has 
now reached such perfection, was then practised in its various 
divisions of physic, work, sweating, and the etcetera of stable 
economy ; and the weight to be carried for public prizes arranged 
by authority. The Roodee, at Chester, was an established course 
m this reign, one of the prizes being a silver bell, of the value 
of ten pounds or thereabouts, run for in five-mile heats. Similar 
prizes were also given at Theobald's on Enfield Chase, at 
Croydon, and Gatherly, in Yorkshire, whence the popular term 
" bearing the bell," no doubt, had its origin. His unfortunate 
son Charles I. had little opportunity of forwarding the social 
concerns of himself or others. In his reign, however, the first 
races on record at Newmarket were held, and, by a singular 
fatality, to Newmarket was he borne a prisoner to the parlia- 
mentary forces. The "civil dudgeon" of the Protectorate of course 
was not friendly to the amusements of the turf, but, though sus- 
pended, they were not lost sight of. Mr. Place, the stud-master 
to Oliver Cromwell, imported the celebrated horse known as the 
White Turk. He was also the owner of some very capital 
mares, one of which, during the search after Cromwell's pro- 
perty at the Restoration, he saved from destruction by hiding 
in a vault, whence she took the name of the " Coffin Mare." 

With the Restoration came the palmy dajs of the Turf. 
Regular meetings were established at Newmarket, and various 
other parts of England ; silver cups and bowls of the value of one 
hundred pounds were presented as royal gifts, and, more than all, * 
the light of royal favour shone upon it in shape of Charles the 
Debonair and Mistress Eleanor Gwynne. William III. had no 

i 

* The palace at Newmarket was built by this monarch for the purpose of : 
enjoying: the diversion of hunting — no races having; been held upon the heath 
till the succeeding reign. 



THE TURF. 



227 



taste for racing, and died by a fall from bis borse. Prince 
George of Denmark, on tbe otber hand, was warmly attached 
to the Turf, and promoted its interest by every means in his 
power. We are indebted for many royal plates to his influence 
with his consort Queen Anne. George I. was no sportsman ; in 
his reign, however, the alteration in the royal plates took place, 
by which a sum of one hundred guineas was substituted in their 
stead. Shortly after George II. ascended the throne, arose a 
morbid yearning after legislating for the Turf. Some of the 
acts enacted were mischievous ; very many were very silly ; one 
was good : — " That no plate or prize of a less value than £50 
should be run for, under a penalty of £200." It was during 
this reign that the Darley and Goclolphin Arabians were brought 
into this country, — two horses from whom have descended all 
the most celebrated racers that adorn the annals of our turf. 
This is the period at which the genealogy of our unrivalled 
thorough-bred horse then, was naturalized, and it is the date 
whence I think it most convenient to begin my notice of English 
racing. 

Even a notice so confined as this is beset with obscurities 
that few would conceive possible. As an instance, I will ad- 
duce the case of an old and well-informed inhabitant of Epsom, 
who some years ago published a very clever history of that 
place. He starts somewhere about the Conquest, and never 
halts for want of materials as he goes on, till he comes to the 
great stumbling-block, concerning which he shall speak for 
himself : — " When the races on Epsom Downs were first held 
periodically, we have not been able to traces but we find that 
from the year 1730 they have been annually held in the months 
of May or June, and about six weeks previous to which the 
j hunters' stakes are occasionally run for on the Epsom race 
; course, at one of which, in 1730, the famous horse Madcap won 
I the prize, and proved the best plate-horse in England. 5 ' 
I To return, however, to the reign of George II., though we 
find little bearing on the business of the Turf to be gleaned from 
its records, it introduces us to the great forefathers of our 

Q2 



228 



THE TURF. 



thorough blood, and stirs one of the most interesting questions 
in our domestic natural history — the problem of the seed or 
origin of the English thorough-bred horse. A brief search 
through the stud-book will convince the inquirer that, almost 
without exception, our great racers were and are descendants 
of the Darley and Godolphin Arabians : I use the latter term 
merely because its conventionality now identifies those celebrated 
animals. They were both, as has been stated, imported in this 
reign : the question that I would here investigate applies 
equally to each, but, for the sake of simplifying it, I will treat 
it with reference to the latter only. " That he was a genuine 
Arabian," says the stud-book, (i his excellence as a sire is deemed 
sufficient proof a little further on we read, e( It is remarkable 
that there is not a superior horse now on the Turf without a 
cross of the Godolphin Arabian, neither has there been for 
several years past." The probable date of his arrival in this 
country was 1/25, or thereabouts. Hundreds of Arabs had 
preceded him as sires, their introduction for that purpose having 
been a very general speculation from the time of Charles I. 
That the indigenous island breed had thereby been rendered 
good service, there can be no doubt \ but that the Turf derived 
any signal advantages from the importations is more than 
problematical. 

Are our celebrated strains of racing blood derived at all from 
an Arab source, and, if so descended, are they excellent conse- ' 
queiitly, or of accident ? As regards the first moiety of the in- 
quiry, a work has just appeared in Paris, the production of a 
gentleman of some literary celebrity*, relating to the genealogy 
of the horse so long known to us as the Godolphin Arabian. 
His statements go to show that he was a pure Barb, presented, 
with seven others, by the Bey of Tunis to Louis XV., about the 
vear 1731. All the portraits I have ever seen of him certainly 
go to strengthen this reading of his descent, and proclaim him 
not of Asiatic origin. The date is an erroneous one, as he was 
a sire in England in the year in which he is said to have reached 



* M. Eugene Sue. 




THE TURF. 



22S 



France; but we must be content with very vague data in all that 
concerns our subject a century ago. As to the second division 
of the question, after-time must furnish the means of replying 
to it, if it be ever answered. My bias is to a belief that there 
exist families of the horse in the East possessed of a perfection 
infinitely surpassing any generically inherited. This I have at- 
tempted to demonstrate in a work upon which I am at present 
engaged, some portion of which has been already published.* 
The fact (of which I was made conscious by authority beyond 
question) that the Imaum of Muscat, one of the most powerful 
sovereign princes of India, expended ten years of active search, 
backed by the enormous bribe of ten thousand pounds, before 
he could procure a descendant of a line sufficiently pure to pre- 
sent to King George IV., seems to establish the truth of the 
theory to which I profess being inclined. All that we learn from 
our knowledge of the almost religious veneration with which the 
genealogy of the horse is treated in the East, goes to the like 
confirmation. " It is remarkable that there is not a superior 
horse now on the turf without a cross of the Godolphin Arabian/' 
I leave .the reader to interpret as his own reflections may lead 
him. 

Shall I venture, at the hazard of pursuing my theory " ultra 
fines," to offer one more example in support of it? That no 
structural organization available to the eye, no individual excel- 
lence in the parents, influence, in our raising stock, the per- 
formances of their offspring, are truisms taught by every stud in 
the kingdom. All that exist among us, descended from the great 
forefather of the Turf, are capable of producing offspring of equal 
pretension, as regards the root from which they are sprung. 
Far different was the result in relation to the importations of 
Eastern blood contemporary with the Godolphin, and the same 

I it has been with all more recently introduced. Enough, at all 
events, has been adduced, if not to prove my position, to warrant 

j me, at least, in its assumption, as well as for offering it to the 

* Annals of the British Turf, from the Introduction of Eastern blood to the 
present Time. The first century concluded in the Old Sporting Magazine. 



23C 



THE TURF. 



consideration of those who hold the subject to which it relates 
of sufficient interest to engage their attention. 

From such speculations on the origin of the British race- 
horse, we will turn to the annals of his exploits, — a theme more 
generally attractive, though intrinsically less important. Here, 
to begin with the early worthies of the turf, all is as obscure as 
is the genealogical problem with which we have been already 
engaged. Of the performances of Guilders, detailed, as they are, 
with all apparent microscopic observations of the seconds 5 hand, 
I am convinced that we know T rather worse than nothing. In a 
recent work of more than an ordinary character on the subject 
to which it addresses itself (Lawrence's History of the Horse), 
Childers — Flying Childers, as he was designated par excellence — 
is stated to have been a chestnut, whereas he was a rich bay with 
four white legs. The same slovenly style, no doubt, attaches to 
the records of the early performances, as well as to the more 
recent attempts of equestrian historians. Again, the only crite- 
rion by which we can estimate them is, when we can refer to a 
timed race, because, knowing little of the principals, we cannot 
be supposed to have a better knowledge of the pretensions of 
their contemporaries. Now, even in our day, when all the 
appliances for chronometrical accuracy are so vastly improved 
and multiplied, we rarely hear of the time of a race being kept 
at all, even accidentally : it is never done by authority, or on a 
principle deserving of confidence. 

We know that the taste, in the middle of the last century, in- 
clined to long distances, and repeated exertion — six and eight- \ 
mile heats being events of constant recurrence ; and yet we are i 
required to believe that there existed at and previous to that • 
time a flight of speed unknown to our degenerate days. More- 3 t 
over, by far the greater portion of the early racers were under- ) ij 
sized, Galloways as the old Calendars have them in every page; 3 $ 
and stride is, save in rare exceptions, indispensable to a high 
degree of swiftness. In the absence of any actual data as to I p 
speed, worthy being confided in, it may not be inconvenient to » 
relate a performance of one of the first-class horses of that j £, 



/ 



THE TURF. 



231 



Deriod ; and, by contrasting it with a match against time, done 
oy a contemporary hackney, some deduction may be drawn of the 
qualities of the racers of that era. 

Gimcrack, a grey horse bred in 1760, by Cripple out of Miss 
Elliot, was considered one of the best of his day. In consequence 
of his superiority, he was sent to France, where he was matched 
for a large sum to do a certain distance against time. Whatever 
it was, he was the winner, having accomplished twenty-three 
miles in fifty-five minutes. This was probably in 1/70. In 1778, 
a foundered hackney, aged twenty-two, belonging to a Mr. 
Hanks, did twenty-two miles within the horn', upon the high 
road in the neighbourhood of London. Gimcrack carried eight 
stone : the weight on the hackney is not given, but there is no 
reason for believing it less than eight stone ; so that one of the 
best race-horses of that day could only beat a broken-down hack 
a mile and five minutes in an hour ! 

It is a conventional fallacy to attribute to past days virtues 
superior to those in which we live. Every thing, from the sea- 
sons to the flavour of home-brewed, was better, if we credit the 
popular voice, " in the good old times." To examine the appli- 
cation of this rule to the matter before us, I may perhaps be 
permitted to borrow a leaf out of my own book, seeing that I 
could scarce make my argument stronger in any other form of 
words. 

u After a careful examination of all the best authorities bearing 
upon the condition of the Turf in that so emphatically called its 
palmiest era — the middle of the last century — I find nothing to 
warrant the belief that, as a species, the contemporaries of King 
Herod, Imperator, Eclipse, Florizel, and Highflyer, possessed 
either speed, power, or symmetry, unknown to the racer of our 
i day. At the very date to which this extraordinary excellence is 
i ascribed, we find the degeneracy of that particular breed the 
subject of legislative consideration ; and in 1740 that an Act of 
Parliament was passed, denouncing the Turf as the cause of the 
growing debasement of the breed of horses all over the king- 
dom, and fixing the weights to be carried in all plates and 



232 



THE TURF. 



matches at ten stone for five-year-olds, eleven stone for six, and 
twelve stone for seven-year-olds and upwards, on pain of a 
penalty of £200, and forfeiture of the horse. It is true that 
this Act was repealed soon afterwards, through the intervention, 
as it was believed, of the Duke of Cumberland ; nevertheless it 
is manifest that there must have existed strong grounds for com- 
plaint against the system of breeding and racing before the con- 
sideration of its economy would be made a subject of Parlia- 
mentary interference. Let us turn to the weights carried by 
two-year-olds fifty years ago, and those common to the present 
period, — the former averaging from six stone to six stone six 
pounds, the latter from eight stone five pounds to eight stone 
seven pounds, and what evidence of degeneracy does that fur- 
nish ?" Racing, wherever we meet it existing as a popular sport, 
is the growth of a root indigenous to England. All the appli- 
ances of civilization are carried to a higher degree of perfection 
among us, in the present day, than at any former period of our 
history : the Turf, and all its materiel, it cannot be doubted, has 
attained a comparative condition of excellence. 

In a nation peculiarly attached to rural sports, that, as matter 
of course, becomes entitled to the place of honour which diffuses 
tho greatest portion of enjoyment to the greatest number of 
people. In this view, racing is well entitled to the pre-eminence 
which it has so long claimed, and had conceded to it ; but it 
prefers demands of a higher nature than its mere pleasurable 
results. In a political sense, it is an engine of no mean im- 
portance. A state must benefit largely from an agency which 
exhibits its nobles promoting, at great individual cost, a sport in 
which all classes can participate equally with themselves, and 
which brings together all the divisions of society for one end 
and purpose — social recreation. Where shall we seek the great 
moral of England's power and station ? — In the wealth which 
commerce pours upon her shares ? — In her wooden walls ? — In 
the skill, learning, and valour of her sons ? We can scarce study 
it in a more impressive page than that yearly spread before us 
at the great popular re-unions of Epsom, Ascot, and Doncaster. 



THE TURF. 



233 



Let such as love such lore, then, search after it where the exa- 
mination will surely reward their industry : we will take it up, 
abstractedly, as a pastime, and in that character look into the 
nature and influence of its present economy. 

As a treasury of art, an assembly of learning, ingenuity, and 
pleasure, our metropolis has many rivals — some superiors: in 
our rural life we stand alone. Mainly this has been brought 
about by — is the consequence of — a general taste for field sports. 
Whether the cause of morality is served by horse-racing, it is not 
our province to inquire. An inelegant but most apropos salt- 
water axiom says, " every man to his post, and the cook to the 
fore-sheet." Mankind, since the creation, has set its face against 
all work and no play, and will do so to the end of the chapter. 
We are of the disciples of Democritus ; and, feeling in the vein, 
will just touch in here, merely in outline, a faint sketch of a 
Derby Day. 

Perhaps, with one exception alone, none of the realities of 
life come up to the anticipations of them ; and what, you ask, is 
that singular deviation from the general rule? — It is a Derby 
Day. Imagine a conglomeration of two millions of souls stirred 
to its penetralia, shaken from its propriety, morally earthquaked, 
because of the necessity which annually requires that a certain 
portion of the mass (say a fortieth) should rendezvous in a 
neighbourhood where certain horses are to contend some two 
minutes and sundry seconds for certain monies, and you arrive 
at a general idea of something by no means in the ordinary 
course. The scene of this commotion is London, the majority 
of the actors automata that make yearly one solitary diversion 
(in both the word's interpretations) from the regular cycles of 
their orbits. But such a Saturnalia demands a word anent its 
note of preparation. 

As soon as the month dawns, big with the catastrophe of 
Epsom Races, straightway from Belgrave Square to Shoreditch, 
from the Regent's Park to uttermost Rotherhithe, forth the 
sackage goes that guts, from garret to cellar, every Pantechnicon, 
Bazaar, and Repository of all and singular the wheeled conveni- 



234 



THE TURF. 



ences and inconveniences peculiar to each. Anon the horse, in 
all its infinite gradations, is had in requisition, from Newman's 
choicest specimens of blood, that devour the Surrey highways, 
to the living quadrupedal skeleton redeemed from the knacker's 
knife at the last Smithfield show for fifteen shillings, and a 
i: drop o' summut for luck." The day arrives, and lo ! a mighty 
chain of carriages, " in linked grumbling long drawn out," ex- 
tends from the Elephant and Castle to the merry Downs of 
Epsom, whitherwards we will suppose thy anxious way hath at 
length been achieved. The moisture of travel encumbereth thy 
brow : searchest thou for thy best Bandana to relieve thee of 
the damp ? Luckless wight ! — 

" That handkerchief 

Did an Egyptian from thy pocket prig-." 

Is not the tide of humanity at the flood of spring ? Ten deep 
do vehicles of all kinds, definite and undefinable, line the course. 
Opposite and around the stand all is high-bred and aristocratic : 
lower down, leading for Tattenham's classic corner, you haply 
take your curious path. What lots of pretty girls you encounter 
as you go ! — each so lady-like and Men raise, you would never 
dream of their metropolitan whereabouts, were it not for those 
awful mortalities that cluster around them ; brothers, cousins, 
lovers it may be — pale shadows that haunt the glimpses of 
Bow Church — horrible illusions from Ludgate Hill and the 
Ward of Cheap, with prickly frills to their linen, swallow tails 
to their coats, green velvet waistcoats, or, still more shocking, 
similar habiliments of black satin, whereon the indecent chain 
of Mosaic grins ghastly, like the gilding on a coffin ! — faugh ! 

Drawing near to the fines, hark ! from glass coach, britscha, 
jarvey, phaeton, proceed various sounds of discontent. — " Cold 
chickens, veal pie, lobsters and no salt." — " Half-a-dozen bottles 
is all very fine, and never no corkscrew." — " Sir, I'll set that 
right if you'll only accommodate us with the loan of a glass : 

really it's too provoking." Ascend the hill, approach the 

Ring, and hear what sums are jeopardied on the coming event! — 



/ 



THE TURF. 



235 



enough to purchase half-a-score of German principalities ; but 
the warren is open, and thither you are borne by the countless 
thousands who throng for a glance of the coursers on whom 
hang the hopes and fears of all. 

Xo spot can be better adapted for the purpose to which it is 
assigned than the so well-known warren ; but all that nature 
has done man takes especial care to frustrate. Instead of its 
cool quiet alleys being kept for the tranquil preparation of 
animals peculiarly disposed to excitement (their most dangerous 
foe at a moment when the entire possession of every faculty is 
of such vital consequence), every "dingle, nook, and bosky 
bourn" is invaded by a horde of ravenous, sight-seeing cockneys, 
of all beasts of prey the most reckless and perverse. Amid this 
restless crowd of babbling, cigar-smoking untameables, the 
process of saddling is effected, and, with graceful steps, the 
fiery-footed adversaries depart for the lists. 

You reach the place of starting, and what awaits you there ? 
Order, decorum, and all fitting arrangement for the important 
essay of which it is the arena ? A second chaos ! — all the 
human elements thrown together in a moral whirlpool. A score 
of men in buckram suits (blue linsey-wolsey), attempting to 
dispose of twice as many thousands — something like barring 
the gates of a beleagured town with boiled carrots ! They draw 
together for the start — infinitely the most influential point in 
the great game to be played. Here all is confusion worse con- 
founded: the multitude opens its thousand throats of brass; the 
steeds are frantic : the jockeys (born and bred devils from their 
cradle) practise every conceivable stratagem ever hatched in 
Fiendom ; and there stands one nervous old man to front the 
pitiless pelting, and produce from such materials a result with 
which all are to be satisfied. "They are off!" and the old 
gentleman, in his agony, pronounces " go/ 5 and the fatal signal 
has gone forth. Over the hill, adown the fall, there is a 
meteoric flash, as though a rainbow had borrowed the wings of 
the lightning, and all is over ! 

The Derby is decided — the steeds turned round — the jockeys 



236 



THE TURF. 



approach the scales — Holy Mother of Moses ! has it entered the 
heart of man (even an Irishman) to conceive the tearing and 
swearing, the howling and screeching, that instant rends the 
empyrean ! Quick as thought a circle of bludgeons and 
constables is formed, into which the horses as they arrive are 
received, and against which a roaring ocean of humanity is 
dashing as fiercely as the vexed Atlantic. Look towards the 
grand stand — behold whole acres of countenances uplifted to 
the sky, wedged as closely as a crate of French eggs, and 
resembling nothing as yet discovered but a monstrous dish of 
opened oysters ! The round earth is shaken, and echo gives up 
the ghost — the thunder hides its diminished head, as with the 
bellowings of ten thousand volcanos myriads of furious lungs 
crash forth, " Who has won ?" Thus whilom did I sing of 
this scene ; and with better experience, save in the episodes of 
flying voltigeurs, men " with never no back-bones at all, only 
a slip of gristle to hold head and heels together,' 5 and epicures 
in. cutlery, " who swallow knives and forks for all the world like 
gingerbread nuts," I can add nothing to the beau ideal of a 
Derby Day. 

How little can they, who first give existence to a principle, 
foresee how it will operate, and what may be its results. The 
pastime of horse-racing, fostered and promoted simply as a 
channel of amusement by the gay and thoughtless Charles, 
called into being the strongest impulse of man's nature — 
emulation, and thus entailed upon this country a race of the 
noblest of all existing animals, of a character apparently su- 
perior to that originally destined by nature. This may be an 
erroneous theory, but as yet we are unacquainted with any 
variety of the horse comparable to the artificial stock known as 
our thorough-blood. The very general efforts that were made 
from that period by the nobles and great landed proprietors to 
improve by lavish outlay, and all the appliances which it can com- 
mand, the best strains of the recently imported Oriental blood, 
towards the middle of the last century, seem to have carried the 
race-horse as a species as near to perfection as his generic 



THE TURF. 



23/ 



organization will admit. True, every year produced some few 
infinitely superior to their contemporaries, but they were pheno- 
mena, — indebted to no individuality of parentage for their 
excellence, and unpossessed of the faculty of endowing their 
descendants with similar gifts. As a race, when opposed to 
the indigenous horse of any quarter of the earth, the English 
thorough-blood is universally victorious; among the various 
families into which it is divided at home, no constant succession 
of superiority has ever discovered itself. 

I am aware that those who only take a superficial view of the 
economy of our racing system will at once pronounce against 
this position. They will adduce the sons and daughters of 
King Herod, Eclipse, and Highflyer ; in our day, of Sultan and 
Emilius, as far surpassing the ordinary run of their contempo- 
raries. But they do not bear in mind that not only did and 
does the progeny of these justly celebrated sires greatly out- 
number that of their less favoured brothers, but that the best 
mares of their respective eras were and are exclusively put to 
them. Not to travel beyond our own day for proofs, did ex- 
cellence ensure its like, what chance would have remained to 
those who now and then breed a solitary nomination against 
the gigantic studs of Hampton Court, Riddlesworth, or Underly ? 
To confine the question to the present year (1838), we had 
evidence that not all the wealth, skilful training, Sybarite care 
and treatment of the best of England's blood could produce 
a match for the son of one of our indifferent racers, — the 
despised of an Irish tenth-rate stable, — the wonderful and the 
basely-abused Harkaway.* I may be told that he was defeated 
here, and by second-raters, too, — but under what circumstances ? 
With ordinary care, without having been subjected to actual 
ill-treatment, at weight for age there was nothing of the year 
in England that could have stood any chance with him. 

From these premises the deduction at which we arrive bearing 

* This extraordinary animal is now (December 1838) advertised for sale, 
his price six thousand guineas, with this strange addition, " that his owner 
(Mr. Ferguson) rides him hunting once or twice a week ! " 



238 



THE TURF. 



upon the economy of the turf, its nature and influence is two- 
fold, and admits of a very brief solution, — the first being that 
the day is long passed since the means of winning upon the 
race-course were to be obtained by breeding ; the second, that 
the vast advantages still to be derived from a proper application 
of our thorough-blood is most strangely neglected. Mr. Bowes 
began his racing career by breeding a winner of the Derby, 
while the late Duke of Leeds, the most extensive breeder of 
blood stock in the north, toiled in vain for the Leger till he 
won it with a colt bought from the tail of the plough. Lord 
George Bentinck, the best winner on the turf of modern days, if 
the Calendar be any criterion, regards breeding racers as an 
expedient no man in his senses should dream of, and, acting 
upon his theory, has put money in his purse. A first-class racer, 
a colt of extraordinary promise, are each productions of chance- 
medley, only to be come at by being secured where and when 
they can be found. 

But if the Turf be thus restricted in further profiting, save as 
matter of hazard, by the means which securely ministered to the 
success of its first speculators, it furnishes materials from which 
may be moulded other distinct races, as valuable, each in its 
province, as the flying family of the modern race- course, now 
the sole representatives of our thorough-blood. The ragged 
regiment of cock-tails will, it is devoutly to be hoped, speedily 
be disbanded ; the day soon arrive when no gentleman shall be 
seen bestriding the mongrel of a base-bred hackney, scarce 
worthy the shafts of a costermonger's trap. And first, as is be- 
fitting, such reform must commence with its next of kin — The 
Field. Shall this, assuredly the second — nay, the twin-sport 
of racing, in the esteem of Englishmen, long continue dependent 
upon chance for a supply of horses for its service ? Impossible ; 
the period cannot be far distant iu which the British thorough- 
bred hunter will be as distinct a race, and of as high renown, as 
his progenitors were the pride of the Turf. 



• HUNTING. 

As the whole object of the Manly Exercises is not accomplished 
in the attainment and practice of them, it was thought con- 
venient that the business of their details should be succeeded 
by a partial notice of some of those sports of which they form 
the elementary process, and which may be regarded as their 
ultimate " end and aim." It has been well said by my talented 
friend, Nimrod, that all the writing in the world will not make 
a sportsman. The pen of Pindar, and the pencil of Grant, 
indeed, exhibit him in all perfection to our admiration ; but, 
could they both write for the education of the student whose 
ambition is Olympic fame, they would not insure success. Like 
the poet, he must be born, in a manner, to his cunning 

The Exercises, upon which Mr. Walker has written, admitted 



240 



B UNTING. 



of being inculcated by methodical rules, and acquired by a 
systematic routine of practice. An acquaintance with them will be 
found of service to youth, whatever the destination of its man- 
hood may be ; while they are essential to the formation of a 
frame and character fitted for the maturity likely to be devoted 
to the wear and tear of our hardy Rural Sports. Driving and 
Yachting, though neither of them strictly coming within the 
pale of a course of physical exercises, still are not out of place 
in a practical book devoted to the science of manly recreations, 
because each is governed by certain rules, which may be taught 
and acquired. It is not so with the subjects constituting the 
matter on which we are at present engaged. A man may out- 
study Zoroaster without being one whit the better quahfied for 
winning a fifty-pound plate, hitting off the line of a fox that 
has been headed, or bringing down his woodcock in cover ; 
these are arts which, being decimated, leave one part to theory 
and nine in favour of practice. For this cause I have made my 
Article on the Turf of a character more suited to the purposes of 
the general reader than those of the visionary theorist, who may 
fondly hope to meet, on page traced by mortal hands, a recipe 
for breeding, training, and managing an embryo winner of Derby 
or Leger. The Chase, however, admits of a certain code of 
general maxims : it has, if not limits, at all events courses better 
defined than those of the Turf, and to the application of them 
by practical men of modern experience we will at once proceed. 

Assuming that a tolerable proficiency in horsemanship has 
been attained before the young disciple of Diana ventures to 
show at all with hounds, he will do well to dedicate the first 
of his novitiate to hare-hunting, whether his future destination 
be that of a M. F. H., or merely a partaker of the " light 
from heaven," dispensed by the "noble science." As this little 
treatise addresses itself more particularly to the latter, it will 
be sufficient to point out what should be his aim in his early 
lessons. Of these, the most essential to the formation of a good 
sportsman, and the only one that will enable any man to live 
to the end of a severe run, is, that he cultivate the faculty of a 



HUNTING. 



241 



quick eye to hounds. With harriers he will constantly have 
practice in this task : the perpetual doubles to which nine 
hares out of ten, when chased, resort, will soon convince him 
of the necessity of keeping a wary look out for the line towards 
which the leading hounds incline. He will have little difficulty 
in deciding with which portion of the pack, or with which in- 
dividual of it, the scent is, if he only observe closely when there 
is any indication of a check. The instant a hound catches the 
scent, he will see him drop his tail horizontally, and spring to 
the front, the one who has lost it elevating his, as if engaged 
in questing. Keeping his look-out always upon the leaders, and 
leaving the body of the pack to follow a similar system, he 
turns his horse as he sees the chase lean, and thus is going at 
his ease inside the circle, around which others can hardly live 
at the best their nags can accomplish. When a. huntsman is 
coming past with hounds, — particularly at check in a lane or 
road, — get out of his way all you can ; the narrower the pass the 
greater the necessity that you give room, or hounds must break 
over the fence, and so run the risk of putting up, or crossing the 
line of, another hare : moreover, horses on such occasions are 
apt to strike out at hounds, and it is far from pleasant to be 
constituted by such a casualty "the observed of all observers." 

In the matter of riding at fences, with harriers you will be 
more enabled to suit your practice to the individual case than 
when you come to ride alongside fox-hounds. With the 
former, when any thing very cramp crosses your line, you may 
" look before you leap," and this is no bad maxim, whoever 
may choose to sneer at it. Let this too be an axiom from 
which you never depart, as far as regards the hounds : when 
you are out with the jolly dogs, "hear and see, and say no- 
thing " — so shall you earn golden opinions from the field in 
general, and prevent much out-pouring of wrath from the offi- 
cials in particular. It will serve you to bear in mind that in 
almost every difficulty of ground a horse can serve himself 
better than you can assist him. I do not mean to say that in 
heavy, deep galloping you should not hold him together, and if 

R 



242 



HUNTING. 



there be a furrow or path at hand, that you should not give him 
the advantage of it. But in woodlands, for instance, where young 
timber has been felled, and the surface is covered with live stuos, 
sive him his head : let him pick his own way ; never touch his 
mouth with the bridle to guide him, and you will find how 
rarely he will give a chance away. Thus in a rabbit warren the 
difficulty is doubled by the nervous man who attempts to steer 
his horse. The biped is looking at one hole, the quadruped at 
another, and being diverted from the spot where he intended to 
place his foot, puts it in where it was meant that he should 
not. Still, however, you may attempt it : never charge ground 
of this nature without using the precaution of slacking your 
pace. I remember a well-known bruising rider, who thought 
it impossible that he could be hurt, once trying the experiment 
over a warren in the neighbourhood of Whitchurch, in Shrop- 
shire, and being assured of the affirmative in the first hundred 
yards by the fracture of his collar-bone, and the dislocation of a 
shoulder. 

With the common run of fences, where the grip is from you, 
go faster at them than when it lies on the side you take off from. 
When they consist of live thorns and quicks newly laid down, 
take them, whenever the chance presents itself, aslant, rising 
where the top of the thorn is laid, as being the least capable of 
holding your horse's knees, should they catch in rising at it. 
In your noviciate it is hardly necessary to offer you any advice 
as to water. As a general rule, however, it may as well be said 
here as elsewhere that, in brook -jumping, pace comes first and 
then judgment. With a powerful impetus you get over ; should 
your horse blunder, somehow — if with a fall at the other side, 
no matter : less speed enables you to pick your ground better, 
but it throws all the odds on the side of a cold-bath, should the 
span be wider than you calculated on, or the bank be soft, and 
let you in. Never take hold of your horse's head till you feel 
that he is safely landed ; if there is a scramble for it, and you 
puil at him but an ounce, it may turn the beam of his equipoise, 
and in you go together. 



HUNTING. 



243 



Young hands are prone to think that it is necessary to the 
acquisition of the reputation of a sportsman that they show in 
front throughout a run. Indeed I might have said this idea 
seems to hold with many who ought to be wiser. The sooner 
the youthful Nimrod discards this fallacy the better. The 
chances are so multiplied and various against a good run that it 
is next to a miracle how a real clipper ever occurs. From foil, 
to which ground is every where exposed, down to an infant of 
three years old that heads your quarry, on every side you are 
beset with risk, even with a scent. Without it your difficulty 
becomes almost an impossibility, and that is the time when 
over-riding, more fatal than all other obstacles put together, is 
to be seen in its superlative degree. There is your hard-rider, 
par excellence, who will be first : the leader pulls up at a check 
— the nuisance passes him, even with hounds at fault, without 
a moment's care for the mischief he must do the chase, or what 
he may do himself. Let such as this teach you that which you 
should avoid : acquire in youth the way you should go, and in 
your maturity you will not depart from it. 

We now come to the matriculation of the " noble science," 
and consider the quondam novice entered to fox-hunting. It 
would be bootless here to offer any eulogy upon a sport admitted, 
by authorities allowing no question, to be, in a political as well as 
a social view, a powerful moral engine. In a letter now before 
me, which I lately received from a gallant general, himself a 
master of fox-hounds, he ascribes to a taste for the chase that 
characteristic manly daring which distinguishes the officers of 
our service from those of any other. Of all field sports its 
claims are the most general upon the properties of manhood. 
The tiger-hunts of the East may appeal more directly to the 
courage, but with activity and physical endurance they have 
little or nothing to do. But see the qualities that must com- 
bine to form the accomplished fox-hunter. He must be bold, 
ready, decisive, capable of commanding and sustaining great 
bodily exertion : he must join unity of purpose to promptness 
of action ; capability of foreseeing events, that he may best turn 



244 



HUNTING, 



theni to advantage, with a frame and a spirit alike competent 
to meet and oppose undauntedly difficulties and dangers, how and 
when they may assail him. I would not have it supposed that 
I claim for the chase a higher station for enterprise than any 
other of the adventurous occupations in which we find mankind 
employed. It would he absurd for an instant, for example, to 
compare it with that most exciting and magnificent of all the 
daring offices to which man has ever addressed himself — the 
South Sea fishing. But as a sport, — an act to which pleasure 
alone induces him, fox-hunting has nothing at all bearing com- 
parison with it in modern days. To the present fashion of its 
details we will now turn our consideration. 

I do not think it necessary here to enter into any foreign 
matter, such as the nature and economy of the establishment 
with which the field may be taken with reference to the country 
hunted, or the number of days weekly to be devoted to its 
business. We will suppose our young Nimrod has completed 
all such arrangements in a convenient fashion, and proceed to 
the res gestce for which he has made preparation. In this hard- 
riding era, it is regarded as a dashing style of going to cover, by 
your aspiring tyro, to approach it as the crow would fly. If he 
must go thither across country, let him, at all events, avoid 
passing through, or riding too near any of the covers likely to 
be drawn during the day. If they hold a good fox, it is sure 
notice for him to quit, for he is ever on the qui vive. The re- 
sult is, should the hounds be thrown in, they come upon a scent 
some hours old — crawl upon it over probably the cream of the 
country, never come on terms with him; and a capital day's 
sport is lost to a whole field by a selfish half-hour's lark. 
Arrived at the place of meeting, he should not address himself 
to the master, if he hunt his own hounds ; or, in the other case, 
to the huntsman, notwithstanding he may be on familiar terms 
with them, beyond the mere exchange of a passing civility. 
Even then, a man, bent upon showing a good day's sport, has 
his mind sufficiently engaged on the business before him. He is 
consulting temporary causes, by which to be directed as to the 



HUNTING. 



245 



particular cover to begin with, and how it is to be drawn. The 
point of wind, the nature of the day. the weather of the pre- 
ceding week, — all must be weighed, and brought to assist his 
judgment. A fox well found is always the most likely to be 
well accounted for. 

But if conversation with the master or huntsman be incon- 
venient before hounds are thrown off, afterwards it becomes a 
positive impertinence. It is no excuse for doing so that they 
are not actually engaged at the moment. A huntsman, having 
drawn without a find, is probably waiting for some of his 
hounds; at the same time he is debating with himself what 
cover he shall next try, and how to get to it, as the wind may 
affect the best lying in it for his fox. He has also observed how 
his hounds have behaved, and has orders to give to a whip as to 
the conduct of some one prone to riot; or that a particular 
corner of the cover about being drawn shall be carefully watched. 
In short, success or failure are dependent on his management ; 
and how can he deliberate if he is to stand a general catechism? 

If it be a large cover, keep within hearing of the hounds and 
huntsman. This can only be effected by being down wind, and 
should be done without any reference to the distance round, 
which it may impose. Of course, it is not intended that a man 
should take any thing he can avoid out of his horse by galloping 
round a cover, but let him keep on steadily opposite the hounds, 
taking heed that he does not get so far forward as to endanger 
heading back the fox, and so spoiling his own and his neigh- 
bours' sport. This I only recommend where covers are very 
large, and even then it may not be the best system. In all cases 
where it is practicable, I never throw a chance away by losing 
sight of hounds. I remember, some years ago, meeting Sir 
Richard Puleston at Cresford village, whence we trotted to a 
wood that skirts the high road to Chester. As we jogged for- 
ward, a friend overtook me, accosting me with, " You need not 
hurry yourself, for they'll find nothing where they're going: it 
has been beaten within an hour by a party of coursers, who have 
left nothing alive on four legs within it, you may rely." In ten 



246 



HUNTING. 



minutes, the pack and field were streaming, best pace, after a 
fox found in that same coppice, away for Shavington, over a 
country like the cream of Leicestershire or Northampton. 

In fox-hunting, depend solely upon yourself, and keep with 
the pack. Even in going from cover to cover, be with them. 
Circumstances frequently arise which induce a huntsman to 
abandon trying a place upon which he may have previouslv 
fixed j and how often has a fox jumped out of a hedge-row in 
the centre of a pack trotting industriously away to look for a 
chance probably half a dozen miles off ! In windy weather, 
when hounds are in cover, unless you draw it with them, it is 
two to one you never get away at all, and ten to one against a 
good start. I have had some experience of horses in my day, 
and have ever found, that, of all ways of beating them, the 
surest is that of trying to catch hounds. Laying aside the ex- 
citement and energy produced by the music, alongside of which 
they go sailing away in wild delight, it must be remembered that 
the pace of fox-hounds with a scent is equal to the best, if not 
superior, that any first-class hunter possesses. What sort of a 
nag then is it, that you can expect to catch them with ten 
minutes' law ? In calm weather, also, the danger of losing sight 
of hounds is by no means to be disregarded. There are some 
days (those which invariably carry the best scent) when hounds 
will find, and fly away like magic, not one in the pack attempting 
to throw tongue. Here, if the cover be large, unless you have 
them in your eye, the odds are you never get away; and see 
what you lose — the excellence of the scent has stopped the cry : 
the faster hounds go, the less they say about it. 

When in a large cover, with hounds unavoidably out of sight, 
depend upon your ear much rather than upon the movements of 
others. You will constantly find men riding straight on end, 
merely because the hounds were running so when they entered, 
while very probably the fox has turned short, and is already 
away, with the pack at his brush, in an opposite direction. With 
a little patience and attention, your ear will soon come to the 
knack of detecting the line of houuds in cover : it is well worth 



HUNTING. 



247 



your while to take pains to acquire this art. "When you have 
learnt it, you will speedily find out the advantage it will confer 
upon your horse, and yourself too. It is by no means easy to 
lay down rules for that which so mainly depends upon circum- 
stances ; but it may be convenient to offer a few examples, upon 
which you may found a system for general application. Sup- 
pose, for instance, you have had a burst with your fox, and he 
has reached a large cover, in which there are strong earths, or 
beyond which lies a country too open for a blown fox to set his 
head for. If the earths are open, in he goes, and there is an 
end of him ; if stopped, he turns, or leans to the right or left. 
During this time, brief as it may be, you have eased your horse ; 
he gets his wind (a minute, in many cases, will put him right 
after a very quick thing), and you are fresh, while your hard 
rider has been going best pace beyond the hounds, and comes 
toiling after you in vain. These points of practice, however, re- 
quire good judgment, and great promptness of action. You 
must know well how to distinguish between a cry that grows 
faint and fainter, as a failing scent leads to a final check, and 
one that, from a crash, at once becomes almost wholly lost, as 
the pack flies to their fox with a view, or a scent breast-high. 

You will, no doubt, at the commencement of your career, hear 
a great deal about the influence the wind has upon the line of 
chase. Do not take all such theory for gospel. I have tried my 
hand at a few systems of the kind, but only found one that ad- 
mitted general adoption. When a fox, on being found, takes up 
wind at first, do not ride, though the pace be first-rate, so as to 
take much out of your horse. Foxes constantly, after going a 
mile or so up wind, turn and head back. This will let you in 
with a good start, and a fresh nag ; and even should the chase 
hold on up wind, you run little risk of being thrown out, as you 
will have the cry to guide you, and the puff in, to enable you to 
get to them when the first brush is over. 

One good effect of the hard riding of modern days is, that 
hounds are much less meddled with by strangers than they used 
to be when first I remember fox-hunting. Indeed, I am not 



248 



HUNTING. 



sure that too much etiquette does not now exist upon that 
point. The total disappearance of the thong to the hunting- 
whip seems like carrying a good thing rather too far. A fox 
breaks probably under your horse's nose : out comes the pack, 
none of the servants are at hand, and they run a field or two 
from the cover before any one stops them, or their own mettle 
allows them to turn : one crack of your whip would have saved 
all that. One thing you can do without your thong, but you 
should be very careful how you do it. I allude to hallooing a 
fox away. Never attempt to lift up your voice till he is evi- 
dently bent on going, and then give him at least a field's law, 
or the odds are, back he goes, perhaps into the hounds' mouths. 
When he is gone, then clap your hand behind your ear, and 
give the " Tally-ho — away /" to the best of the lungs that are 
in you. Should he merely show for a moment outside, and 
then pop in again, give a " Tally-ho — back !" that it may be 
known where he was seen, as well as that he is not away. 
Another service in this latter halloo is, that all the points where 
it is likely he will try to break will be left clear for him. If a 
fox is seen crossing a ride or path, in cover, in front of you, 
pull up ; and if hounds are at check, tally him,, as it will serve 
as a guide to the huntsman. 

In drawing a cover you may give this signal, should any fox 
cross you, but if you have run him in, be awake not to tally any 
but the hunted one, or you will have few thanks for your 
trouble. A little experience will easily teach you the difference 
between one just unkennelled and that which has stood any 
time before hounds. Not only will the former be sleek and 
unstained, but the method of going be very dissimilar. A fresh 
fox bounds off, throwing his hind legs clear from him, and his 
whole frame, from the tip of his nose to that of his brush, as 
straight as an arrow ; if hunted, and at all blown or beaten, 
his action is laboured, like that of a rocking-horse, his back is 
curved, his brush drooping, and the ears thrown back, all the 
fire for which when found his eye is so remarkable, quenched, 
and exchanged for an air of cunning and subdued resolution. 



HUNTING. 



249 



I am far from any design of counselling you to interfere with 
the business of a pack of fox-hounds that you may be either in 
the habit of hunting with, or one that you may merely meet by 
accident occasionally. Still there are instances in which to 
withhold all assistance would be to put the chance of sport in 
jeopardy, and in which the true lover of the chase ought to act 
first and think afterwards. Should any casualty, for example, 
so find you that, with hounds at fault, you catch a halloo that 
the huntsman does not or cannot hear, contrive so to place 
yourself between the halloo and the hounds that you may be 
heard by huntsman or pack, and so lead them on the line that 
the halloo proceeds from. I repeat, however, that these and 
similar aids must be offered with due discretion. The halloo 
may be a false one — true, but had you gone to make inquiries, 
you, too, would have been out of hearing — the points of fox- 
hunting require temporary and local adaptation, and a head- 
piece to direct all. Mere physical endowments will never make 
an accomplished fox-hunter — combined with judgment they are 
very excellent subsidiaries : for him who would shine in the 
chase 

"Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano." 

In riding to hounds it will essentially serve you if you bear 
in mind what ninety-nine out of a hundred seem never to give 
a thought to, namely, that the pack only acts pro tanto upon 
the line of country which a fox is likely to take. Independent 
of the point which it is assumed he will make for, he has a 
hundred other things to avoid, as well as the enemies baying on 
his trail. He settles his point, but he must also get to it 
unseen. Unless beaten and all but run into, he will give a wide 
berth to any thing like the habitation of man as well as man 
himself. Thus, by keeping your eye well before you, there is 
a chance that the turn hounds will take may be so far antici- 
pated, that you avoid riding outside of their circle. It has been 
well said that when hounds are running, a man ought to consider 
what, under the circumstances in which things happen to be, he 



250 



HUNTING. 



would do were he the fox. I cannot offer you better counsel. 
By adopting such a principle you will be enabled to foresee a 
check should you detect any thing in the line that the chase is 
taking, however far ahead — and if you have a knowledge of the 
country, you will calculate such chances almost to a certainty. 
In a district with which you are acquainted, the hue a fox takes 
when found, will enable you to judge whether he has been 
before hunted, and if he has, the odds are he runs the same 
again. Even in cover you may fairly assume that he is accus- • 
tomed to be stirred by the ring he takes, the points he tries, the 
gaps he uses in the fences, and similar observations, which 
should be the business on which you are intent from the mo- 
ment the hounds are thrown in. 

More than once it has been my good fortune to secure a 
clipping run for a sporting field by keeping a clear look-out 
upon the matter at issue, and nothing else, when a long series of 
covers drawn blank, and such dampers, have sent one-half of 
the morning's muster home, while the other had taken to the 
dernier ressort of cigars and gossip. As an instance of this, 
several years ago, with the Shropshire, when Mr. Cresset Pelham 
had them, we had been at it from the hour of meeting till past 
three, in November too, and no luck. Having trotted on to our 
last hope for the day, it was tried, and pronounced — blank ! 
Already twilight had commenced, the huntsman outside the 
cover was blowing his horn, the pack mustered, and home was 
the order of march. I had watched the gathering with care ; 
and, as we were already trotting from the side of the spinny, it 
struck me that an old and favourite bitch was missing. I called 
the huntsman's attention to it. There was a pause — a faint 
wimple was heard in the still valley — anon it opened into a 
cry, " Hark to it !" — the pack flew to the challenge — there was 
a mighty crash : in a minute a fox broke away in sight of every 
man who had had the patience to await the last throw on the 
dice. A burst of twenty minutes was the result, without a pull 
from best pace ; and we turned him up in the open just as the 
parish lantern gave us notice to look out for squalls. 



HUNTING. 



251 



There exists, in some masters of hounds, a disposition to keep 
back such men as, when hounds are in chase, follow them 
through the covers they take in their line. It is not my desire 
to inculcate disobedience to the powers that be ; but certainly I 
cannot second that principle, either with reference to those who 
adopt it, or those to whom it is intended to apply. When a 
hunted fox has reached a cover, not only is it the best way to 
cheer hounds to him, that they should not feel themselves alone, 
but also the noise made by men following them is the most 
likely way to make a fresh fox break, without any of the strag- 
glers getting on him. I have seen a fox crawl into cover dead 
beat, and already in the mouths of the pack. The huntsman 
and a whip followed them — the " whoo-whoop " was given — 
the master and the rest of the field waited on the outside. They 
remained in patience till ten minutes had elapsed. " Surely." 
said an old hand at last, " they are doing more than baying him 
with all that cry. Hark ! it has got to the opposite side of the 
wood : — by heavens ! they're away with a fresh fox." And so 
they were ; and they killed him at the end of forty minutes 
without a check, and without a sight of them ever being caught, 
save by the servants, who had followed to lift the fox that had 
crawled dead beat into the cover. 

I have thus attempted to sketch, for the young disciple of the 
" noble science," a slight code of maxims of general application. 
For the principles of practice to direct him in the constantly 
occurring cases, which admit of no rule save that arising out of 
individual circumstances, he must rely upon himself. Under 
this general head of Hunting, I have not thought it necessary 
to enter upon any varieties of the chase, save those of the fox 
and the hare. Stag-hunting, as a rural sport, is limited to a 
very few districts : and for its pursuit requires only a knowledge 
of horsemanship, and a quick eye to a country. Fox-hunting 
and hare-hunting I have treated with reference only to the points 
of practice which apply to the convenience of those who select 
them as appliances of recreation. This work, in its nature, is 
rudimentary : it professes to deal with the elements of our manly 



252 



HUNTING. 



exercises, and so far to treat of our national sports of Racing, 
Hunting, and Shooting. Its office is to instruct the be- 
ginner, leaving the higher classes to volumes of more preten- 
sion. With this view of its purpose, I have brought the subject 
of the Chase to the limit which I designed for it. It is a truly 
manly — a noble sport. Long may it be cherished and fostered 
in our land ! The qualities which it calls into action are those 
which confer honour on manhood, — courage, promptness, ac- 
tivity, and decision. Surely these are rare properties in which 
to exercise a youth, and these the Chase will engender and 
nourish : while to such as require that a moral attach to every 
occupation of life, it has this to recommend it, that, in riding to 
hounds, this great truth is hourly inculcated — " Honesty is the 
best policy." 



SHOOTING. 



It is my purpose, in the present chapter, as in the two preced- 
ing, to offer, as companion to the system of exercises described 
in the first part of this work, certain practical rules upon another 
of those popular field sports, a knowledge of which has in all 
ages been considered, in this country, part of a gentleman's 
education. The perfection to which we have attained in the 
manufacture of all the implements connected with this branch 
of sporting, would make a dissertation on the materiel of shooting 
a piece of useless information to those for whose service these 
notices are intended. Instead, therefore, of filling these pages 
with elaborate instructions for selecting his guns, gun-cases, 
flasks, belts, and the whole catalogue of shooting gear, I present 
my reader with one solitary golden maxim, which will ensure 
to him the possession of a perfect apparatus, and that eventually 



254 



SHOOTING. 



on the most economical terms : Let him go, for every article of 
his equipment, to the most celebrated artist in the item of which 
he has need. It is true that, compared with the scale of prices 
in the provinces, the charges of the first-rate London gun- 
makers are startling things upon paper, and so are those made 
by coachmakers of the same class. Indeed, the same may be 
said of the rate of demand common to the leading dealers of 
the metropolis; but he will find that jinis coronat opus. An eco- 
nomical friend of mine, who was recently quartered in Ireland, 
ordered, of one of the most respectable firms in Dublin, a tra- 
velling chariot, the price, with the usual et ceteras, being two 
hundred and fifty pounds : here it would have cost him three 
hundred, or three hundred and twenty. Just as it was com- 
pleted, he was ordered home ; and his new bargain broke down 
with him fourteen times between Liverpool and London. As a 
contrast to this : An old sporting associate, never particularly 
distinguished for his thrift, recently showed me a pair of shooting 
shoes, for which he paid Hoby two guineas, that he has had in 
constant work for sixteen years ! No record has been preserved 
of the number of times they have had new bottoms. The only 
perishable portions of these cordwaining phenomena, however 
are their soles : their bodies appear to be immortal. 

To return to the appointments of the young aspirant to the 
honours of the trigger. Although I set out with supposing him 
equipped with the best double detonator that money can pro- 
cure from a maker of known character, and all other mechanical 
appliances for the field, a proper management and judicious 
arrangement of them is by no means to be similarly obtained. 
Upon the condition of those mechanical aids his success de- 
pends, quite as much as the adroitness to which he may arrive in 
the use of them. Whether that department be in the hands of 
a gamekeeper fully competent to all its details, or there be an 
actual necessity for the master's eye to direct it, a knowledge of 
the most approved means will be found equally essential. Pro- 
ficiency in any art or science requires an intimacy with the whole 
machinery of its economy. It was this conviction that made an 



SHOOTING. 



255 



emperor a labourer in a dockyard, and should induce every 
sportsman to acquaint himself with the minutest particulars 
bearing upon his craft. To this end I will give a few rules, de- 
rived as well from personal experience as from some of the most 
approved authorities on the subject that have appeared in print. 

Gun-cleaning. — Use cold water for the purpose of cleansing 
the barrel, and finish by pouring in boiling water, taking care to 
stop the touch-hole. Shake it up and down well, and drain it 
from the muzzle, which will clear the chamber. The hot water 
greatly aids the process of drying, — one of the most important 
parts of gun- washing. After the washing is concluded, by 
looking down the barrel with the touch-hole open, you will be 
enabled to see into the chamber, and ascertain whether it be 
effectually cleared out or otherwise. The foulness of the barrel 
of course must be the criterion by which the person employed 
in cleaning it will be decided. Should it require to be scoured, 
to remove powder encrusted on its sides, very fine sand and hot 
water should be used, and care taken to rinse it out thoroughly, 
at the last, with boiling water, to clear the chamber of anything 
that may have been driven into it by the washing-rod. The 
material in ordinary use for gun-cleaning is tow, to which there 
is the objection that particles are apt to become detached from 
it, and lodge in the chambers. To prevent any chance of this 
kind, I would recommend the substitution of cloth, which will 
be found to answer the purpose quite as well, being at the same 
time free from all such hazard. It is a bad habit to fall into, 
that of laying by your gun loaded : let the charge be drawn 
after the day's work. If you have had but a few shots, the less 
trouble there will be in the cleaning : a mere hot-water rinse, 
and a good drying, will be enough. Should your gun contain 
an old charge when you go out, do not put your faith in it : the 
odds are all in favour of its hanging fire. Squib it off, first draw- 
ing the shot, and load again while the barrels are warm ; probe 
your touch -holes; wipe your locks within and without; and if you 
cannot command success afterwards, you will have the satisfaction 
of knowing that you have taken the best course to ensure it. 



256 



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^ Every time you load, observe whether your touch-hole be 
free-f it is but a moment's occupation, and a certain security 
against a monstrous annoyance — missing fire, probably at one of 
your best chances during the day. In all cases of hanging or 
missing fire, the seat of disease is the touch-hole or chamber, 
if your cap has exploded : to these apply the remedy. I speak 
only with reference to detonators, as they have now become so 
very universal : of course when a flint gun is used, the mischief 
may be caused by a faulty flint. Your last act should be, when 
the day's sport is over, before you enter the house, to let down 
the springs of your locks : the less stress you keep upon them, 
the more power and elasticity they will retain. This is the plan 
to make one lock wear out the best Damascus barrel. 

Powder. — The names of most of the great manufacturers of 
gunpowder are now sufficient guarantee for the excellence of 
the article bearing their signatures. Purchase your supply from 
any respectable house, and you will be secure that it is genuine: 
beyond the label you need not seek. Your care, then, must be 
to preserve the original strength, by putting it into canisters 
closely corked and sealed, after first having carefully dried it, — 
a process for which Colonel Hawker gives this excellent recipe : 
" Your powder should always be properly dried, in order to do 
which make two or three plates very hot before the fire, and 
(first taking care to wipe them well, lest any particle of cinder 
should adhere to them) keep constantly shifting the powder from 
one to the other, without allowing it to remain sufficiently long 
in either to cool the plate. The powder will then be more 
effectually aired, and more expeditiously dried, than by the 
more common means of using only one plate, which the powder, 
by lying on it, soon makes cold, and therefore the plate re- 
quires to be two or three times heated.' 5 Nothing can be added 
to this, save the admonition that the operation be performed at 
such a distance from the fire as to prevent the possibility of a 
spark or cinder reaching you. The surest way is to dry your 
powder in one room, and to heat your plates in another. 

Shot. — Here is a division of my subject much less easily dis- 



SHOOTING. 



25/ 



posed of than the last. The selection of shot is a question upon 
which many of the best authorities are at issue. Some deal 
with it only in reference to the game for which it is intended ; 
others consider it merely as having relation to the length and 
diameter of the barrel for which it is required. I recommend 
the middle course, — medio tutissimus ibis. Colonel Hawker tells 
us that " it is not so much the magnitude of the pellet, as the 
force with which it is driven, that does the execution." No one 
can accord more cheerful fealty than I do to the generality of 
that first-rate sportsman's opinions ; but I cannot allow my ad- 
miration to dazzle my common sense, or to subscribe to this 
hypothesis. With a swan-drop, you break the leg of wild-boar 
or red-deer ; but could any force known to the science of pro- 
jectiles accomplish it with a grain of number 9, or dust-shot? 
The rule should be, to suit your number to your game — the ex- 
ception, to your gun and its calibre. Taking the average size 
at which fowling-pieces are now made, and the general character 
of English sporting, I have no hesitation in saying that there 
are very few instances in which number 7 will not be found 
to answer the purposes of a day's shooting. It is not the power 
to penetrate that fills the bag. Many a bird carries off a quarter 
of an ounce of lead in his body ; but break his wing, and what 
can he do then? The advocate of small shot urges the increased 
space which it covers, and consequently the increased chances in 
favour of its hitting ; but to hit your bird, and to bring him 
down, are two very different things. Catch him anywhere with 
a good-sized pellet, and the odds are that he comes to bag; stuff 
him with dust, and he flies away with a whole charge, unless it 
has encountered a vital part. It is to be remembered that I am 
not here addressing my observations to first-rate masters of the 
trigger, — to such professors as Ross, Sutton, or Osbaldiston. 
I have not deemed it necessary to go into the relative merits of 
shot upon such minute niceties as the increased rotatory motion 
of the larger pellets, and the like. In an epitomised treatise like 
this, the length of my design only extends to offering the best 
general hints that suggest themselves to me, as applicable to the 



258 



SHOOTING. 



sendee of the novice. To such, then, I say, in all ordinary cases, 
make use of number 7 : never go higher, for a jack-snipe 
will often fly away with the full of a charger of number 9 in 
his body. If, however, your sport lies exclusively in thick wood- 
lands, or where only very long shots are likely to be had, supply 
yourself with numbers 2 or 3 ; but at the same time take care 
to provide a long and heavy gun, that will throw them even, and 
not in lumps and clusters. 

Percussion Caps. — Detonating guns have now been so 
long in general use, that the familiarity thus produced with the 
various properties and kinds of fulminating powders, ensures 
the very general perfection to which these invaluable auxiliaries 
of the shooter have attained. They are to be had, of an almost 
uniform excellence, at all the respectable gunmakers in town 
and country. 

Wadding. — Here again is a matter on which you will find a 
vast variety of opinion. Some get rid of it altogether by adopt- 
ing the new system of cartridges. Upon this point I do not 
wish to offer any of the results of my own limited experience. 
I have shot with these, and with average success — a low average 
I admit, for I have no pretensions to the name of a crack. They 
are, however, worth the experiment of a trial, though I am dis- 
posed to believe the success or failure of it will much depend 
upon the accidental properties and effects of the materials sub- 
mitted to the test. To return to the sort of wadding which may 
best serve those who still adhere to the old system of mere 
powder and shot. After enumerating the various claims of paper, 
hat, card, and leather, Colonel Hawker gives the preference to 
punched pasteboard,- — the thickness to increase in the ratio of 
the diameter of the barrel. The best that have ever come under 
my notice are Cherry's prepared waddings, suited to every calibre. 
They are manufactured from felt which has undergone a process 
that prevents the accumulation of damp after firing, and are to 
be procured at any gunmaker's for the cost of the materials in 
ordinary use. These I do recommend, and I am sure those who 
accord them a trial will have no reason to regret it. They cover 



SHOOTING. 



259 



the powder effectually, and offer but little resistance to the shot, 
which is all that is required of wadding. Mr. Cherry would im- 
prove upon his invention by piercing the waddings intended to 
cover the shot, as it would facilitate the operation of loading, while 
the shooter made the distinction by carrying those for the powder 
in his left-hand pocket, and those for the shot in his right. 

The Powder-flask. — It is strange that, among the many 
ingenious improvements effected in the implements of the 
shooter, the powder-flask, certainly the most important of all, 
should have been left in its present dangerous condition. I am 
aware that an attempt, and a praiseworthy one, was made some 
years ago by Mr. Egg, to reduce the chances of accident which 
the present construction of the flask involves ; but I ask why 
has not some contrivance, without any of the old leaven in it, 
been suggested and effected? In the shot-belt the charger is 
wholly detached — where no risk, at all events, would follow, 
were it otherwise — whereas, when loading with powder, the 
charger, with the flask attached, is introduced into the muzzle 
of the gun, so that should it, by any accident, become ignited, 
an explosion (and most probably a fatal one) of the whole en- 
sues as matter of consequence. However, to deal with it as you 
find it, with proper precaution, when you fill your charger let 
back the spring gradually, that no chance may be given away in 
the event of a bit of flint, or any substance that might throw out 
a spark, being struck by it. Never lose sight of the material 
which your flask contains. Let nothing induce you to fire with 
it in your hand. If a chance shot offer while you are loading a 
discharged barrel, throw- it behind you, if there is not time to 
return it to your pocket. 

Loading. — I have not thought it necessary to occupy any of 
my limited space with the shot-belt, because it is so simple, and 
at the same time so excellent in construction, that the merest 
novice cannot be astray in the use of it. Not so is it with the 
important office — that of loading your gun aright, although it is 
impossible to lay down any rules for it applicable to every case. 
Experience alone will enable you so to proportion your charge 



260 



SHOOTING. 



that you shall come at the full powers of which your gun is 
capable. The gauge, the length, the weight — all must be takeu 
into account, and provided for. For the ordinary run of fowling- 
pieces, the following is a fair proportion : — A shot-charger that 
holds an ounce and a half of shot may be filled to the brim with 
powder, which will serve to load with, as also to prime : the 
same measure filled up with shot will constitute your charge of 
lead. By these proportions, you can thus regulate the chargers 
of your belts and flasks. Against this system it is contended, 
by the ultra-particular, that it is a bad one in reference to powder, 
which is manufactured without regard to weight, only the pro- 
jectile force being considered. These are minutiae, however, into 
which I do not desire to introduce the learner. He will have 
enough to do with the more immediate affairs of preparing his 
nerves, forming a judgment upon sight and distance, and laying 
a foundation upon a basis of right principle and prompt per- 
formance, without which he will have little business upon that 
arena to which I am about to introduce him, after a long but 
still a necessary preface. 

Shooting. The Field. — Unless where some positive 
mental or physical prohibition exists, a certain degree of excel- 
lence and dexterity in every art and science is open to such as 
seek with care and perseverance. Thus, although, from natural 
causes, every man cannot aspire to the honour of becoming a 
crack shot, there is scarcely any that may not acquire the art of 
shooting tolerably well. The sooner the essay is made, the 
better the chance of its success ; and as my pupil is supposed to 
be in this condition, I proceed, without further introduction, to 
offer such practical rules and maxims as may best serve to pro- 
mote the end he should have in view — that of becoming cautious 
in the management, and steady in the use of his gun. 

The first step, assuming the learner to be a complete novice, 
will be to acquire the proper mode of putting his gun to his 
shoulder, and of bringing the sight to bear upon a particular 
object, — the latter only to be rightly accomplished with the 
breech and sight on a level. Having attained this preliminary, 



SHOOTING. 



261 



let bim take a flint gun, with a piece of wdocI substituted for the 
flint, and practise at the object so situated, always remembering 
to pull the trigger the moment the sight is on the mark — a pre- 
caution he will rind the vast advantage of as he comes to apply 
it to flying shots. After a practice so conducted till the eye 
ceases to flinch when the trigger is drawn, he may begin to load 
with half charges, and continue to practise at his object, occa- 
sionally, without his knowledge, small charges of shot being 
added, so that he shall strike his mark without the nervous ex- 
citement of feeling that he is making the attempt. 

The great point — that of steadiness combined with self-confi- 
dence — being arrived at, he may now try his hand at small birds ; 
but even after he has become adroit at these, he has still another 
ordeal to go through. This is the tremour at the springing of 
game, whether a pack of grouse, a covey of partridges, or a soli- 
tary cock-pheasant, which, indeed, often makes as startling a 
flight as either. In this case, it will serve him greatly to return 
to the system he began with, and learn to cover his game with- 
out the nervous apprehension of a miss. While at this practice, 
he may begin to use himself to cover with both eyes open, the 
advantage of which he will soon discover when he comes to quick 
shooting. 

Being tolerably au fait at these points of practice (for perfec- 
tion can only result from long experience, whence come skill 
and judgment), it will be necessary that he bear in mind those 
rules for rightly effecting his purpose when his game is moving. 
He must shoot before an object that crosses his point of sight; 
high for a bird rising in its flight, or skimming the surface ; be- 
tween the ears of hares or rabbits running in a straight line from 
him, — being guided, of course, in every case, by the distance 
between him and the mark at which he aims. For example, if a 
bird range forty yards from him, calculating the ordinary velo- 
city of its speed of wing, he mav safely aim six inches before it. 
No fixed rules, however, can be laid down, where the casualties 
of powder, a dull or lively- shooting gun, high winds, and fifty 
other et ceteras, are opposed to a system. One principle he 



262 



SHOOTING. 



may always adopt with success, and that is, to fix his eyes on 
the mark he has selected, and fire the instant the gun is brought 
to bear upon it. It is very difficult to say at what distance a 
bird may be which can be called a fair shot, because it rests with 
so many contingencies. Forty yards are generally considered 
as point-blank range, but it will often be found easier to bring 
down game at fifty than at thirty yards. The wind, as in cross 
shots, and various operating causes — all the result of temporary 
accident — must be taken into account. You will always have a 
better chance to kill long cross shots than those approaching or 
flying from you. It is very hard to do execution upon birds 
with a stern-chaser, and in coming towards you they present a 
surface off which shot is very apt to glance without penetrating. 
I have said nothing about the hold of his gun most convenient 
for the learner to accustom himself to, because, in whatever 
manner it may be put into his hands at first, he is sure, ulti- 
mately, to adopt a style of his own, arising from natural causes, 
or habits almost as forcible. The nearer it is placed to the 
guard, the less risk is run should a barrel burst. The grasp of 
the stock more forward affords the greatest facility in bringing 
the gun to bear upon its object, and more firmness of position. 

While I am on the mechanical portion of the young shooter's 
acquirements, or rather things to be acquired, I do not think a 
better opportunity can be chosen to introduce a few hints upon 
a more advanced state of practice, albeit some may, at the time 
of perusing them, be unfit to receive what may be termed 
finishing lessons. When you are about taking a cross shot at a 
long range, fire well before it, from one to three feet, according 
to the speed with which the bird is flying, and let your gun be 
thrown above the object. The same rule must direct you in 
firing at hares or rabbits, whether it be a cross shot or one in a 
right line. It is a most mischievous practice, as far as regards 
your day's sport, to make much noise in the field, however 
strong the provocation from the disobedience of your dogs, or 
any cause whatever. Should your pointers prove incorrigible, 
I would rather recommend you, when they have sprung a covey, 



SHOOTING. 



263 



to cause them to be taken up, and then walk yourself as near as 
you can to the spot where you saw it drop. Should the birds 
rise singly or by the brace, continue to beat and shoot while you 
think one remains: it will be time enough to look after the slain 
(that cannot abscond) when you make sure of the living. This 
plan may also be successfully adopted when there is not scent 
enough to prevent the staunchest dogs from running in upon 
their game. In marking your covey down, remember they cannot 
fall so long as they continue to skim : they cannot alight till 
they stop themselves, and prepare for the pitch, by a flapping of 
the wings. 

I should not advise you to begin beating for partridges, even 
in September, before nine o'clock, and then desist from it at 
noon. From three till dusk is the golden division of the day, at 
that season, for the partridge-shooter. If your ground happen 
to lie in the vicinity of manors that have been shot over during 
the day, you will be certain to meet the remnants of scattered 
coveys, of all chances the most sure to fill your game-bag. With 
pheasants, however, when they are to be sought in strong covers 
particularly, your system must be almost reversed. As the clay 
advances, these birds resort to the thickest and strongest lying 
that the woodlands frequented by them afford. "When beating, 
in the early morning, after rain, you will generally find them in 
the skirts of covers, or in the hedgerows adjacent. In such 
cases, always contrive to place yourself between them and the 
strong old woods : to these they are certain to fly, — instinct 
teaching them that there they are most sheltered and secure. 
In battue-shooting, all you have to attend to is the situation of 
the best opens, and such sides of the covers intended to be 
beaten, as the direction of the wind, and the ordinary resort of 
the game, point out as the most judicious stations; but when 
about to engage in a single-handed day's sport, you will require 
a more skilful disposition, and closer attention to the manner of 
your tactics. In this latter case, your best assistant will be a 
steady old pointer : one that will range near you, work round 
every piece of copse and underwood, and poke into every nook 



264 



SHOOTING. 



/ 



and crevice ; well broke he must be, so as to fall at shot, and 
crouch down on bringing in his birds. 

In a treatise such as this, it would be impossible to give even 
the briefest epitome of directions for the various classes of game 
and wild-fowl shooting. Before, however, I close my address to 
the young disciple of the trigger, I will offer him a few familiar 
hints on a division of his craft neither the least in importance or 
interest, — namely, his relation to his best ally and friend, the 
dog. I am not going to suggest the species best suited to 
general shooting, as so very much depends upon the country to 
be hunted, and the chance that may direct selection; but whether 
pointer, setter, or spaniel, you will find your account in making 
such as you intend for coadjutors in the field your ordinary asso- 
ciates and companions. Try the experiment by committing one 
puppy of a litter entirely to the breaker, and retaining another 
(when the general rudiments of his education have been ac- 
quired) constantly with yourself, and at every opportunity sub- 
jected to gentle but firm discipline, and you will soon discover 
which is the better plan. Adopt the same system with a per- 
fectly-made hunter — a master of his business; and you will soon- 
find out the difference of being served by one who, from habit, 
will be enabled to understand your looks, and another who, at 
best, will have to puzzle out your wishes, or require to have them 
announced at the hazard of flushing half the game in the parish. 

With this parting word on the social economy of shooting, 
closes the last of those notices of our Field Sports which the 
publisher thought it convenient to. appear in this volume, and 
the treatment of which he confided to me. If his purpose has 
been fulfilled, my desire will be accomplished, — the wish to 
please being our unity of design. The little talent the writer 
possesses, at all events will not have failed from lack of anxiety 
to accomplish his task : what is writ is writ, — 

" Would it were worthier ! " 



LONDON : BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTFRS, WIIITKFJRTARS. 



I 



I 



(10) 



"WO CENTS A DAY 
9JCTI v ^ 



